Vectors for directional cloning

ABSTRACT

The invention provides vectors and methods for directional cloning.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No.10/678,961, entitled “Vectors for Directional Cloning”, filed on Oct. 3,2003, the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Molecular biotechnology has revolutionized the production of proteincompounds of pharmacological importance. The advent of recombinant DNAtechnology permitted for the first time the production of proteins on alarge scale in a recombinant host cell rather than by the laborious andexpensive isolation of the protein from cells or tissues which maycontain minute quantities of that protein. The production of proteins,including human proteins, on a large scale in a host requires theability to express the protein of interest in a host cell, e.g., aheterologous host cell. This process typically involves isolation orcloning of the gene encoding the protein of interest followed bytransfer of the coding region (open reading frame) into an expressionvector which contains elements (e.g., promoters) which direct theexpression of the desired protein in the host cell. The most commonlyused means of transferring or subcloning a coding region into anexpression vector involves the in vitro use of restriction endonucleasesand DNA ligases. Restriction endonucleases are enzymes which generallyrecognize and cleave a specific DNA sequence in a double-strand DNAmolecule. Restriction enzymes are used to excise a DNA fragment whichincludes a coding region of interest from the cloning vector and theexcised DNA fragment is then joined using DNA ligase to a suitablycleaved vector with transcription regulatory sequences in such a mannerthat a functional protein can be expressed when the resulting expressionvector is introduced to a cell or an in vitro transcription/translationmixture.

A problem in controlling fragment orientation in fragments generated byrestriction enzymes is that many of the commonly used restrictionenzymes produce termini that are rotationally equivalent, and therefore,self-ligation of DNA fragments with such termini is random with regardto fragment orientation. Hartley and Gregori (Gene, 13:347 (1981))reported a technique to control fragment orientation during ligation,which required the introduction of Aval sites flanking either end of thecloned fragment (also see Hartley and Gregori, U.S. Pat. No. 4,403,036).Since Aval cleavage produces distinguishable ends, self-ligation of thefragment results in a strong bias toward head-to-tail orientation. Thisis so because head-to-head and tail-to-tail ligation results in basemismatches. The polymerized molecules were then inserted into a vectorand used to transform E. coli.

In a similar approach, Ikeda et al. (Gene, 71:19 (1988)) producedhead-to-tail tandem arrays of a DNA fragment encoding a human majorhistocompatibility antigen that was flanked by SfiI cleavage sites. SfiIproduces single-strand DNA overhangs that are not rotationallyequivalent. SfiI sites have also been used to produce copolymers of geneexpression cassettes and selection markers, which can be used totransfect cells (Monaco et al., Biotechnol. Appl. Biochem., 20:157(1994); Asselbergs et al., Anal. Biochem., 243:285 (1996)). Monaco etal. treated the copolymer with NotI to cleave the DNA at the 3′ end ofthe selectable marker gene. In this way, transfected DNA moleculescontain only one selectable marker gene per copolymer.

Class IIS restriction enzymes can generate totally asymmetric sites andcomplementary cohesive ends. Kim and Szybalski (Gene, 71:1 (1988))introduced sites for BspMI, a class IIS restriction enzyme, at eitherend of cloned DNA. Self-ligation of the cloned DNA provided multimerscomprising repeat units in the same orientation. Similarly, Takeshita etal. (Gene, 71:9 (1988)) achieved tandem gene amplification by insertinga fragment encoding human protein C into a plasmid to introduceasymmetric cohesive ends into the fragment. In this case, sites for theclass IIS enzyme, BstXI, were used. The multimer was then cloned into acosmid vector comprising a neo gene, packaged into lambda phageparticles, and amplified in E. coli. The cosmid vectors were thenintroduced into Chinese hamster ovary DHFR-cells, which were treatedwith G418 to select for cells that expressed the neo gene. Takeshita etal. also found that cells expressed human protein C, albeit at lowerlevels, following transfection with unpackaged tandem ligated DNAcomprising copies of the cosmid vector and the human protein C gene.

A similar approach was described by Lee et al. (Genetic Analysis:Biomolecular Engineering, 13:139 (1996)), who amplified target DNA astandem multimers by cloning the target DNA into a class IIS restrictionenzyme cleavage site of a vector, excising a monomeric insert with theclass IIS restriction enzyme, isolating monomeric inserts, self-ligatingthe inserts, and cloning the multimers into a vector. According to Leeet al., such a method is useful for polymerizing short DNA fragments forthe mass production of peptides.

Another approach for forcing directional ligation is to devise syntheticlinkers or adapters that are used to create asymmetric cohesive ends.For example, Taylor and Hagerman (Gene, 53:139 (1987)) modified theHartley-Gregori approach by attaching synthetic directional adapters toa DNA fragment in order to establish control over fragment orientationduring ligation. Following polymerization, the multimers were ligated toa linearized vector suitable for E. coli transformation. Stahl et al.(Gene, 89:187 (1990)) described a similar method for polymerizing DNAfragments in a head-to-tail arrangement. Here, syntheticoligonucleotides were designed to encode an epitope-bearing peptide with5′-protruding ends complementary to the asymmetric cleavage site of theclass IIS restriction enzyme, BspMI. After polymerization, the peptideencoding fragments were inserted into the unique BspMI site cleavagesite of a vector, which was used to transform E. coli. Clones werescreened using the polymerase chain reaction, and then subcloned intoprokaryotic expression vectors for production of the peptides in E.coli.

Nevertheless, the ability to transfer a desired coding region to avector with transcription regulatory sequences is often limited by theavailability or suitability of restriction enzyme recognition sites.Often multiple restriction enzymes must be employed for the removal ofthe desired coding region and the reaction conditions used for eachenzyme may differ such that it is necessary to perform the excisionreactions in separate steps. In addition, it may be necessary to removea particular enzyme used in an initial restriction enzyme reaction priorto completing remaining restriction enzyme digestions. This requires atime-consuming purification of the subcloning intermediate. It also maybe necessary to inactivate restriction enzymes prior to ligation.

Methods for the directional transfer of a target DNA molecule from onevector to another in vitro or in vivo without the need to rely uponrestriction enzyme digestions have been described. For example, theCreator™ DNA cloning kit (Clontech Laboratories, Inc.) uses Cre-loxPsite-specific recombination to catalyze the transfer of a target genefrom a donor vector to an acceptor vector, which is a plasmid containingregulatory elements of the desired host expression system (see also U.S.Pat. No. 5,851,808). Cre, a 38-kDa recombinase protein frombacteriophage P1, mediates recombination between or within DNA sequencesat specific locations called loxP sites (Sauer, Biotechniques, 16:1086(1994); Abremski et al., J. Biol. Chem., 259:1509 (1984)). These sitesconsist of two 13 bp inverted repeats separated by an 8 bp spacer regionthat provides directionality to the recombination reaction. The 8 bpspacer region in the loxP site has a defined orientation which forcesthe target gene to be transferred in a fixed orientation and readingframe. Donor vectors in the kit contain two loxP sites, which flank the5′ end of a multiple cloning site (MCS) and the 5′ end of the openreading frame for the chloramphenicol resistance gene. Donor vectorsalso contain the ampicillin gene for propagation and selection in E.coli, and the sucrase gene from B. subtilis (SacB) for selection ofcorrect recombinants. Acceptor vectors in the kit contain a single loxPsite, followed by a bacterial promoter, which drives expression of thechloramphenicol marker after Cre-lox-mediated recombination. The gene ofinterest, once transferred, becomes linked to the specific expressionelements for which the acceptor vector was designed. If the codingsequence for the gene of interest is in frame with the upstream loxPsite in the donor vector, it is in frame with all peptides in theacceptor vector.

The Gateway™ Cloning System uses phage lambda-based site-specificrecombination. The LR Reaction is a recombination reaction between anentry clone having mutant attL sites and a vector (a Destination Vector,pDEST™) having the corresponding mutant attR site, mediated by acocktail of recombination proteins (λ recombination proteins Int, Xis,and the E. coli-encoded protein IHF), to create an expression clone. TheBP Reaction is a recombination reaction between an expression clone (oran attB-flanked PCR product) and a donor vector to create an entryclone. The BP reaction permits rapid, directional cloning of PCRproducts synthesized with primers containing terminal 25 bp attB sites(+4 Gs). The result is an entry clone containing the PCR fragment.Similarly, DNA segments flanked by attB sites in an expression clone canbe transferred to generate entry clones which can be used to move thesequence of interest to one or more destination vectors in parallelreactions to generate expression clones. The resultant 25 bp attB sites(attB1 on the left (N-terminus) and attB2 on the right (C-terminus))created by the LR reaction are derived from the attL sites (adjacent tothe gene), whereas the distal sequences are derived from the attR sites.

However, the protein encoded by Cre-loxP based expression vectors orother site-specific recombinase based vectors, e.g., the Gateway™Cloning System, has numerous, for instance, 8 to 13, amino acid residuesat the N-terminus and C-terminus of the protein, which residues areencoded by the site-specific recombination exchange sites.

Thus, what is needed is an improved method to directionally clone anucleic acid sequence of interest.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides methods and vectors for use in directionalcloning. In one embodiment, a vector comprising an open reading frame ofinterest (a donor vector) comprises at least two restriction enzymerecognition sites (“restriction enzyme sites”, “restriction sites” or“recognition sites”) flanking the open reading frame (DNA sequence ofinterest), wherein at least one of the flanking sites is a site for afirst restriction enzyme which generates hapaxoterministic ends, e.g., arestriction enzyme with a degenerate recognition sequence or one whichcleaves outside of a recognition sequence yielding single-strand ends,and other vector sequences (backbone sequences) for replication and/ormaintenance of the vector in a host cell and, optionally, one or moredetectable, e.g., selectable, marker genes. In one embodiment, a donorvector comprises at least two restriction enzyme sites flanking the openreading frame, wherein at least one of the flanking sites is for a firstrestriction enzyme which is a hapaxoterministic restriction enzyme,e.g., a restriction enzyme with a degenerate recognition sequence, whichsite, once cleaved, does not result in self complementary single-strandDNA overhangs or blunt ends, i.e., the ends are non-self complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs. In another embodiment, the donor vectorcomprises at least two restriction enzyme sites flanking the openreading frame, wherein at least two of the flanking sites are for afirst restriction enzyme with a hapaxomeric recognition sequence, andoptionally for the same restriction enzyme, which sites, once cleaved,yield a linear DNA fragment which does not have self-complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs or blunt ends. Such a vector may be employedas a source of the open reading frame to prepare a vector for expressionof the linked open reading frame (a recipient or expression vector). Thebackbone sequences in the recipient vector are generally provided by anacceptor vector which contains transcriptional regulatory sequences andoptionally sequences for the production of fusion proteins. The acceptorvector also comprises non-essential DNA sequences flanked by at leasttwo restriction enzyme sites for a second restriction enzyme with ahapaxomeric recognition sequence, and optionally one or more detectable,e.g., selectable, marker genes. In one embodiment, the two flankingrestriction enzyme sites in the acceptor vector for the secondrestriction enzyme are sites which, once cleaved, do not result in selfcomplementary single-strand DNA overhangs or blunt ends but yield alinear DNA fragment having single-strand DNA overhangs that arecomplementary with one of the two DNA overhangs generated by the firstrestriction enzyme. Once the linearized DNA fragments are ligated toform a recipient vector, the recipient vector may be introduced tocells, e.g., prokaryotic cells such as E. coli cells, insect cells,plant cells, mammalian cells, or lysates thereof or to in vitrotranscription/translation mixtures, so as to yield a transformed cellthat expresses a protein encoded at least in part by the open readingframe.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a method for the directionalsubcloning of DNA fragments. The method includes providing a firstvector comprising a first selectable marker gene and a DNA sequence ofinterest, which DNA sequence of interest is flanked by at least tworestriction enzymes sites, wherein at least two of the flankingrestriction enzyme sites are sites for a first restriction enzyme whichis a hapaxoterministic restriction enzyme, and wherein digestion of thefirst vector with the first restriction enzyme generates a first linearDNA fragment which lacks the first selectable marker gene but comprisesthe DNA sequence of interest and a first pair of non-self complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs. A second vector for the method is providedwhich includes a second selectable marker gene which is distinguishablefrom the first selectable marker gene and non-essential DNA sequences,optionally including a counterselectable gene, which non-essential DNAsequences are flanked by at least two restriction enzyme sites, whereinat least two of the flanking restriction enzyme sites are for a secondrestriction enzyme which is a hapaxoterministic restriction enzyme,wherein digestion of the second vector with the second restrictionenzyme generates a second linear DNA fragment which lacks thenon-essential DNA sequences but comprises the second selectable markergene and a second pair of non-self complementary single-stranded DNAoverhangs, and wherein each of the second pair of non-self complementarysingle-strand DNA overhang is complementary to only one of thesingle-strand DNA overhangs of the first pair of non-self complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs and permits the oriented joining of thefirst linear DNA fragment to the second linear DNA fragment. The firstand second vectors, the first vector and the second linear DNA fragment,or the second vector and the first linear DNA fragment are combined in asuitable buffer with one or more of the restriction enzymes which arehapaxoterministic restriction enzymes and optionally DNA ligase underconditions effective to result in digestion and optionally ligation toyield a mixture optionally comprising a third vector comprising thefirst and second linear DNA molecules which are joined in an orientedmanner via the first and second pairs of non-self-complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs. In one embodiment, ligase is addedsimultaneously with the one or more restriction enzymes, while inanother embodiment, ligase is added subsequent to the one or morerestriction enzymes. Optionally, the mixture is introduced into a hostcell, and optionally the transformed host cells are selected for theexpression of second selectable marker gene or against the expression ofthe counterselectable gene. The method may also include identifying athird vector in which the DNA sequence of interest has been transferredin an oriented manner to the second linear DNA fragment. In oneembodiment, the first restriction enzyme is SfiI, SapI or anisoschizomer thereof. In one embodiment, the first restriction enzyme isSfiI or an isoschizomer thereof and the second restriction enzyme isBglI or an isoschizomer thereof. In one embodiment, the secondrestriction enzyme is EarI or an isoschizomer thereof. In anotherembodiment, the first and second restriction enzymes are the same.Optionally, the DNA sequence of interest comprises an open reading framecomprising one or more sites for the first or second restriction enzyme.In this embodiment, optionally, prior to digestion with the one or morerestriction enzymes, the sites for the one or more restriction enzymesin the open reading frame are protected so as to prevent digestion,e.g., protected by methylation such as with HaeIII methylase, SapImethylase, or SfiI methylase. Alternatively, prior to methylation, theflanking sites for the first or second restriction enzyme are contactedwith an oligonucleotide complementary to the flanking restriction enzymesite and RecA. In one embodiment, ligation and oriented joining yields athird vector encoding a N-terminal fusion protein which is encoded bythe DNA sequence of interest and nucleic acid sequences 5′ to the 3′ endof the second linear DNA fragment. In another embodiment, ligation andoriented joining yields a third vector encoding a C-terminal fusionprotein which is encoded by the DNA sequence of interest and nucleicacid sequences 3′ to the 5′ end of the second linear DNA fragment. Inyet another embodiment, ligation and oriented joining yields a thirdvector encoding a fusion protein which is encoded by the DNA sequence ofinterest and nucleic acid sequences 5′ and 3′ to the respective 3′ and5′ end of the second linear DNA fragment. In a further embodiment,ligation and oriented joining yields a third vector encoding a fusionprotein which is encoded by the DNA sequence of interest and theexchange site(s) created by the oriented joining.

Thus, the invention also provides a vector system for cloning. In oneembodiment the system includes a first vector comprising a selectablemarker gene and a DNA sequence of interest, which DNA sequence ofinterest is flanked by at least two restriction enzyme sites, wherein atleast two of the flanking restriction enzyme sites are for a firstrestriction enzyme which is a hapaxoterministic restriction enzyme,wherein digestion of the first vector with the first restriction enzymegenerates a first linear DNA fragment which does not comprise the firstselectable marker gene but comprises the DNA sequence of interest and afirst pair of non-self complementary single-strand DNA overhangs,wherein the first restriction enzyme sites are designed such that thefirst linear DNA fragment can be religated directly to a second vector.The system optionally includes a second vector, which includes a secondselectable marker gene which is distinguishable from the firstselectable marker and non-essential DNA sequences, optionally includinga counterselectable gene, which non-essential DNA sequences are flankedby at least two restriction enzyme sites, wherein two or more of theflanking restriction enzyme sites in the second vector are for a secondrestriction enzyme which is a hapaxoterministic restriction enzyme,wherein digestion of the second vector with the second restrictionenzyme generates a second linear DNA fragment which lacks thenon-essential DNA sequences but comprises the second selectable markergene and a second pair of non-self complementary single-strand DNAoverhangs, wherein each of the second pair of non-self complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs is complementary to only one of thesingle-strand DNA overhangs of the first pair of non-self complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs and permits the oriented joining of thefirst linear DNA fragment to the second linear DNA fragment. Furtherprovided is a kit which includes one or more vectors of the vectorsystem.

Also provided is a method for producing a vector suitable for expressionof an amino acid sequence of interest. The method includes combining atleast two vectors in a suitable buffer with one or more restrictionenzymes and optionally DNA ligase under conditions effective to resultin digestion and optionally ligation to yield a mixture optionallycomprising a third vector. A first vector for use in the method includesa first selectable marker gene and a DNA sequence of interest, which DNAsequence of interest is flanked by at least two restriction enzymesites, wherein two or more of the flanking restriction enzyme sites aresites for a first restriction enzyme which is a hapaxoterministicrestriction enzyme, wherein digestion of the first vector with the firstrestriction enzyme generates a first linear DNA fragment which lacks thefirst selectable marker gene but comprises the DNA sequence of interestand a first pair non-self complementary single-strand DNA overhangs. Asecond vector comprises a second selectable marker gene which isdistinguishable from the first selectable marker gene and non-essentialDNA sequences that optionally include a counterselectable gene, whichnon-essential DNA sequences are flanked by two or more restrictionenzyme sites, wherein two or more of the flanking sites in the secondvector are for a second restriction enzyme which is a hapaxoterministicrestriction enzyme. Digestion of the second vector with the secondrestriction enzyme generates a second linear DNA fragment which lacksnon-essential DNA sequences but comprises the second selectable markergene and a second pair of non-self complementary single-strand DNAoverhangs, wherein each of the second pair of the non-self-complementaryDNA overhangs is complementary to only one of the single-strand DNAoverhangs of the first pair of non-self complementary single-strand DNAoverhangs, and permits the oriented joining of the first linear DNAfragment to the second linear DNA fragment. In one embodiment, the DNAsequence of interest encodes one or more domains of one or moreproteins.

In one embodiment, at least one restriction enzyme site flanking theopen reading frame of interest is for a restriction enzyme thatrecognizes an internal palindrome, e.g., a type II enzyme such as SfiIor BglI, including but not limited to restriction enzymes that generatemore than two types of staggered ends (DNA overhangs) due to theambiguity in base recognition, for instance, AhdI, AlwNI, ApaBI, BglI,BlpI, BstAPI, BstEII, BstXI, Bsu36I, DraII, DraIII, DrdI, Eam1105I,EcoNI, PflMI, PssI, SauI, SfiI, XcmI, as well as isoschizomers thereof,but not restriction enzymes that generate blunt ends. In anotherembodiment, at least one restriction enzyme site flanking the openreading frame of interest is for a type IIS enzyme, e.g., SapI or EarI,such as restriction enzymes that generate ends outside of theirrecognition sites including but not limited to AarI, AceIII, AloI, BaeI,Bbr7I, BbvI, BbvII, BccI, Bce83I, BceAI, BcefI, BcgI, BciVI, BfiI, BinI,BplI, BsaXI, BscAI, BseMII, BseRI, BsgI, BsmI, BsmAI, BsmFI, Bsp24I,BspCNI, BspMI, BsrI, BsrDI, BstF5I, BtgZI, BtsI, CjeI, CjePI, EciI,Eco31I, Eco57I, Eco57MI, Esp3I, FalI, FauI, FokI, GsuI, HaeIV, HgaI,Hin4I, HphI, HpyAV, Ksp6321 (EarI), MboII, MlyI, MmeI, MnlI, PleI, PpiI,PsrI, RleAI, SapI, VapK32I, SfaNI, SspD5I, Sth132I, StsI, TaqII, TspDTI,TspGWI, TspRI, Tth111II, as well as isoschizomers thereof. In a furtherembodiment, one of the restriction enzymes is a class IIS restrictionenzyme, including but not limited to AccB7I, AceIII, AclWI, AdeI, AhdI,Alw26I, AlwI, AlwNI, ApaBI, AspEI, AspI, AsuHPI, BbsI, BbvI, BbvII,Bce83I, BcefI, BciVI, BfiI, BglI, BinI, BmrI, BpiI, BpmI, BpuAI, BsaI,Bse3DI, Bse4I, BseGI, BseLI, BseRI, BsgI, Bsll, BsmAI, BsmBI, BsmFI,BspMI, BsrDI, Bst71I, BstAPI, BstF5I, BstXI, Bsu6I, DraIII, DrdI, DseDI,Eam1104I, Eam1105I, EarI, EchHKI, Eco31I, Eco57I, EcoNI, i1396I, Esp3I,FokI, FauI, GsuI, HgaI, HphI, MboII, MsiYI, MwoI, NruGI, PjfMI, PflFI,PleI, SfaNI, TspRI, Ksp632I, MmeI, RleAI, SapI, SflI, TaqII, Tth111I,Tth111II, Van91I, XagI, XcmI, or a restriction enzyme which has the samerecognition site as AccB7I, AceIII, AclWI, AdeI, AhdI, Alw26I, AlwI,AlwNI, ApaBI, AspEI, AspI, AsuHPI, BbsI, BbvI, BbvII, Bce83I, BcefI,BciVI, BfiI, BglI, BinI, BmrI, BpiI, BpmI, BpuAI, BsaI, Bse3DI, Bse4I,BseGI, BseLI, BseRI, BsgI, BslI, BsmAI, BsmBI, BsmFI, BspMI, BsrDI,Bst71I, BstAPI, BstF5I, BstXI, Bsu6I, DraIII, DrdI, DseDI, Eam1104I,Eam1105I, EarI, EchHKI, Eco31I, Eco57I, EcoNI, i1396I, Esp3I, FokI,FauI, GsuI, HgaI, HphI, MboII, MsiYI, MwoI, NruGI, PflMI, Pf7FI, PleI,SfaNI, TspRI, Ksp632I, MmeI, RleAI, SapI, SfiI, TaqII, Tth111I,Tth111II, Van91I, XagI, XcmI, or is AvaI, Ama87I, BcoI, BsoBI, Eco88I,AvaII, Eco47I, Bme18I, HgiEI, SinI, BanI, AccB1I, BshNI, Eco64I, BfmI,BstSFI, SfcI, Bpu10I, BsaMI, BscCI, BsmI, Mva1269I, Bsh1285I, BsaOI,BsiEI, BstMCI, Bse1I, BseNI, BsrI, Cfr10I, BsiI, BssSI, Bst2BI, BsiZI,AspS9I, Cfr13I, Sau96I, Bsp1720I, BlpI, Bpu1102I, CelII, Bst4CI, BstDEI,DdeI, CpoI, CspI, RsrII, DsaI, BstDSI, Eco24I, BanII, EcoT38I, FriOI,HgiJII, Eco130I, StyI, BssT1I, EcoT14I, ErhI, EspI, BlpI, Bpu1102I,Bsp1720I, CelII, HgiAI, BsiHKAI, Alw21I, AspHI, Bbv12I, HinfI, PspPPI,PpuMI, Psp5II, SanDI, SduI, Bsp1286I, BmyI, Secl, BsaJI, BseDI, SfcI,Bfm1, BstSFI, SmlI, or a restriction enzyme which has the samerecognition site as AvaI, Ama87I, BcoI, BsoBI, Eco88I, AvaII, Eco47I,Bme18I, HgiEI, SinI, BanI, AccB1I, BshNI, Eco64I, BfmI, BstSFI, SfcI,Bpu10I, BsaMI, BscCI, BsmI, Mva1269I, Bsh1285I, BsaOI, BsiEI, BstMCI,Bse1I, BseNI, BsrI, Cfr10I, BsiI, BssSI, Bst2BI, BsiZI, AspS9I, Cfr13I,Sau96I, Bsp1720I, BlpI, Bpu1102I, CelII, Bst4CI, BstDEI, DdeI, CpoI,CspI, RsrII, DsaI, BstDSI, Eco24I, BanII, EcoT38I, FriOI, HgiJII,Eco130I, StyI, BssT1I, EcoT14I, ErhI, EspI, BlpI, Bpu1102I, Bsp1720I,CelI, HgiAI, BsiHKAI, Alw21I, AspHI, Bbv12I, HinfI, PspPPI, PpuMI,Psp5II, SanDI, SduI, Bsp1286I, BmyI, SecI, BsaJI, BseDI, SfcI, BfmI,BstSFI, SmlI. In one embodiment, one of the restriction enzymes is AarI,AscI, BbrCI, CspI, DraI, FseI, NotI, NruI, PacI, PmeI, PvuI, SapI, SdaI,SflI, SgfI, SplI, SrfI, SwaI, or a restriction enzyme that has the samerecognition site as AarI, AscI, BbrCI, CspI, DraI, FseI, NotI, NruI,PacI, PmeI, PvuI, SapI, SdaI, SfiI, SgfI, SplI, SrfI, SwaI.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a donor vector comprisingan open reading frame of interest flanked by at least two restrictionenzyme sites, one of which flanking sites is for a first restrictionenzyme that has a low frequency, e.g., fewer than about 25%, forinstance, including fewer than about 20%, 10%, 5% or even fewer, e.g.,about 1%, of recognition sites in a plurality of, for instance, 3 ormore, including 100, 1,000, 10,000 or more, cDNAs or open reading framesfor a particular species (an “infrequent cutter”) and generatessingle-strand DNA overhangs, and the other of which flanking sites isfor a second restriction enzyme that has a low frequency of recognitionsites in a plurality of cDNAs or open reading frames for a particularspecies, for instance, the same species as for the first restrictionenzyme, and generates ends that are not complementary to the overhangsgenerated by the first restriction enzyme. In one embodiment, the secondrestriction enzyme generates blunt ends (a “blunt cutter”). Thefrequency of a particular restriction enzyme recognition site in one ormore nucleic acid molecules can be determined by methods well-known tothe art. For instance, databases with a plurality of cDNA sequences oropen reading frames for a particular organism may be employed todetermine such a frequency. A donor vector of the invention may beemployed as a source of the open reading frame of interest to prepare arecipient vector of the invention. The backbone sequences in therecipient vector are generally provided by an acceptor vector havingtranscriptional regulatory sequences of interest and optionallysequences for the production of fusion proteins. The acceptor vectoralso comprises non-essential DNA sequences flanked by at least tworestriction enzyme sites, and one or more detectable marker genes. Inone embodiment, one of the flanking sites in the acceptor vector is fora third restriction enzyme which generates single-strand DNA overhangs,which single-strand DNA overhangs are complementary with thesingle-strand DNA overhangs produced when the donor vector is digestedwith the first restriction enzyme. The other flanking site in theacceptor vector is for a fourth restriction enzyme which generates endsthat are not complementary to the ends generated by the first or thirdrestriction enzyme but are compatible, i.e., can be ligated to, withends generated by the second restriction enzyme. In one embodiment, thesecond and fourth recognition enzymes are blunt cutters and therestriction sites for the second and fourth restriction enzymes are notrecognized by the same restriction enzyme. In one embodiment, the openreading frame encodes one or more domains of one or more proteins.

Thus, the invention provides a method for the directional subcloning ofDNA fragments. The method includes providing a first vector comprising afirst selectable marker gene and a DNA sequence of interest, which DNAsequence of interest is flanked by at least two restriction enzymesites, wherein at least one of the flanking restriction enzyme sites isa site for a first restriction enzyme which has infrequent restrictionsites in cDNAs or open reading frames from at least one species andgenerates complementary single-strand DNA overhangs, wherein at leastone of the flanking restriction enzyme sites is for a second restrictionenzyme which has infrequent restriction sites in cDNAs or open readingframes from at least one species and generates ends that are notcomplementary to the overhangs generated by the first restrictionenzyme, wherein digestion of the first vector with the first restrictionenzyme and the second restriction enzyme site generates a first linearDNA fragment which lacks the first selectable marker gene but comprisesthe DNA sequence of interest. Also provided is a second vectorcomprising a second selectable marker gene which is distinguishable fromthe first selectable marker gene and non-essential DNA sequences,optionally including a counterselectable gene, which non-essentialsequences are flanked by at least two restriction enzymes sites, whereinat least one of the flanking restriction enzyme sites in the secondvector is for a third restriction enzyme which generates complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs that are complementary to the single-strandDNA overhang generated by the first restriction enzyme in the firstlinear DNA fragment, wherein at least one of the flanking restrictionsites in the second vector is for a fourth restriction enzyme whichgenerates ends that are not complementary to the ends generated by thefirst or third restriction enzyme but can be ligated to the endsgenerated by the second restriction enzyme, and wherein digestion of thesecond vector with the third restriction enzyme and the fourthrestriction enzyme generates a second linear DNA fragment which lacksnon-essential DNA sequences but comprises the second selectable marker,which second linear DNA fragment is flanked by ends which permit theoriented joining of the first linear DNA fragment to the second linearDNA fragment. The first and second vectors, the first vector and thesecond linear DNA fragment, or the second vector and the first linearDNA fragment are combined in a suitable buffer with one or morerestriction enzymes and optionally DNA ligase under conditions effectiveto result in digestion and optionally ligation to yield a mixtureoptionally comprising a third vector comprising the first and secondlinear DNA molecules which are joined in an oriented manner. Optionally,prior to digestion with the one or more restriction enzymes, the sitesfor the one or more restriction enzymes in the open reading frame areprotected so as to prevent digestion. In one embodiment, the sites areprotected by methylation and, optionally, prior to methylation, theflanking sites for the first or second restriction enzyme are contactedwith an oligonucleotide complementary to the flanking restriction enzymesite and RecA. In one embodiment, the second restriction enzymegenerates blunt ends and the first linear DNA fragment is flanked by afirst single-strand DNA overhang and a blunt end. In one embodiment, thefirst and third restriction enzymes are not the same. In anotherembodiment, the second and fourth restriction enzymes are not the sameor each generates blunt ends. In another embodiment, the DNA sequence ofinterest comprises an open reading frame comprising one or more sitesfor the first or second restriction enzyme.

Further provided is a vector system for cloning. The vector systemincludes a first vector comprising a first selectable marker gene and aDNA sequence of interest, which DNA sequence of interest is flanked byat least two restriction enzyme sites, wherein at least one of theflanking restriction enzyme sites is a site for a first restrictionenzyme which has infrequent restriction sites in cDNAs or open readingframes from at least one species and generates complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs, wherein at least one of the flankingrestriction enzyme sites is for a second restriction enzyme which hasinfrequent restriction sites in cDNAs or open reading frames from atleast one species and generates ends that are not complementary to theoverhangs generated by the first restriction enzyme, wherein digestionof the first vector generates a first linear DNA fragment which lacksthe first selectable marker gene but comprises the DNA sequence ofinterest, wherein the restriction enzyme sites are designed such thatthe first linear DNA fragment can be religated directly to a secondvector. The second vector includes a second selectable marker gene whichis distinguishable from the first selectable marker gene andnon-essential DNA sequences, optionally including a counterselectablegene, which non-essential DNA sequences are flanked by at least tworestriction enzymes sites, wherein at least one of the flankingrestriction enzyme sites in the second vector is for a third restrictionenzyme which generates complementary single-strand DNA overhangs whichare complementary to the single-strand DNA overhangs generated by thefirst restriction enzyme, wherein at least one of the flankingrestriction sites in the second vector is for a fourth restrictionenzyme which generates ends that are not complementary to the endsgenerated by the first or third restriction enzyme but can be ligated tothe ends generated by the second restriction enzyme. Digestion of thesecond vector with the third and fourth restriction enzymes generates asecond linear DNA fragment which lacks the non-essential DNA sequencesbut comprises the second selectable marker gene, wherein the secondlinear DNA fragment is flanked by ends which permit the oriented joiningof the first linear DNA fragment to the second linear DNA fragment. Akit comprising one or more of the vectors of the vector system is alsoprovided.

In one embodiment, the second restriction enzyme generates blunt endsand the first linear DNA fragment is flanked by a first single-strandDNA overhang and a blunt end. In one embodiment, the first and thirdrestriction enzymes are not the same. In another embodiment, the secondand fourth restriction enzymes are not the same or each generates bluntends. For instance, in one embodiment, one of the restriction enzymes isAarI, AscI, BbrCI, CspI, DraI, FseI, NotI, NruI, PacI, PmeI, PvuI, SapI,SdaI, SfiI, SgtI, SplI, SrfI, SwaI, or a restriction enzyme which hasthe same recognition site as AarI, AscI, BbrCI, CspI, DraI, FseI, NotI,NruI, PacI, PmeI, PvuI, SapI, SdaI, SfiI, SgfI, SplI, SrfI, SwaI.

In one embodiment, at least one restriction enzyme site flanking theopen reading frame of interest is for one of SgfI, PvuI or PacI,restriction enzymes which generate ends compatible with SgfI, e.g.,SgfI, PvuI, BstKTI or PacI, or restriction enzymes that yield ends thatcan be selected to have the proper 3′ TA overhang, e.g., AasI, Bce83I,BsiEI, BcgI, BpmI, BpuEI, BseMI, Bse3DI, BseMII, BseRI, BsgI, BspCNI,BsrDI, BstF5I, BseGI, BtsI, Drdl, DseDI, EciI, Eco57MI, Eco57I, Bce83I,GsuI, MmeI, TspDTI, Tth111II, BspKT5I, AcuI, BspKT61, Eco57MI, TaqII,TspGWI, or isoschizomers thereof. In one embodiment, at least onerestriction enzyme site flanking the open reading frame of interest isfor one of SgfI (AsiSI), PacI, or PvuI (Afa22MI, Afa16RI, BspCI, EagBI,ErhB9I, MvrI, NblI, Ple19I, Psu16II, RshI, XorII).

In another embodiment, at least one restriction enzyme site flanking theopen reading frame of interest is for PmeI (MssI), DraI, AhaIII (DraI,PauAII, SruI), NruI (Bsp68I, MluB2I, Sbo13I, SpoI), SnaBI (BstSNI,Eco105I), SrfI, or SwaI (BstRZ246I, BstSWI, MspSWI, SmiI). In anotherembodiment, at least one restriction enzyme site flanking the openreading frame of interest is for a restriction enzyme that generates ablunt end which can create a stop codon after ligation with anotherblunt end, for instance, one that can create a stop codon after ligationwith an end generated by PmeI, e.g., EcaBC3I (TC{circumflex over( )}GA), SciI (CTCAGAG), HincII (GTC{circumflex over ( )}GAC, a versionof GTYRAC), HpaI (GTT{circumflex over ( )}AAC), HincII (GTT{circumflexover ( )}AAC, a version of GTYRAC), Dral (TTT{circumflex over ( )}AAA),Swal (ATTT{circumflex over ( )}AAAT), or an isoschizomer thereof, or fora restriction enzyme that yields ends that can be selected to have ablunt end such as 5′GA, 5′AG or 5′AA, e.g., BsaBI, Cac8I, Hpy8I, MlyI,PshAI, SspD5I, or an isoschizomer thereof. For example, ligation of endsgenerated by PmeI and DraI can create a stop site, as would ligation ofNTT and GAN, NCT and AGN, or NTT and AAN, wherein each N is A, T, G orC. In one embodiment, the exchange site formed from blunt end ligationof an end generated by PmeI and that of another blunt cutter can yield acoding sequence for a protein fusion. For instance, ligation of an openreading frame terminating in an end generated by PmeI and an endgenerated by BalI, BfrBI, BsaAI, BsaBI, BsrBI, BtrI, Cac8I, CdiI, CviJI,CviRI, Eco47III, Eco78I, EcoICRI, EcoRV, FnuDII, FspAI, HaeI, HaeIII,Hpy8I, LpnI, MlyI, MslI, MstI, NaeI, NlaIV, NruI, NspBII, OliI, PmaCI,PmeI, PshAI, PsiI, PvuII, RsaI, ScaI, SmaI, SnaBI, SrfI, SspI, SspD5I,StuI, XcaI, XmnI, ZraI, or an isoschizomer thereof, can extend the openreading frame at the 3′ end.

In one embodiment, the first restriction enzyme is SgfI and optionally,the second restriction enzyme is PmeI. In another embodiment, the thirdrestriction enzyme generates a 3′TA overhang, e.g., the thirdrestriction enzyme is PvuI or PacI.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a method to directionallyclone a DNA sequence of interest which employs a recipient vectorcomprising a DNA sequence of interest, e.g., optionally encoding afusion protein, flanked by at least two restriction enzyme sites, one ofwhich is for a first restriction enzyme that has a low frequency ofrecognition sites in a plurality of cDNAs or open reading frames for aparticular species and generates single-strand DNA overhangs, and theother of which flanking sites is for a second restriction enzyme thathas a low frequency of recognition sites in a plurality of cDNAs or openreading frames for a particular species and generates blunt ends. Anacceptor vector may comprise a counter-selectable marker flanked by atleast two restriction enzymes sites. One of the flanking sites in theacceptor vector is for a third restriction enzyme which generatessingle-strand DNA overhangs which are complementary with thesingle-strand DNA overhangs produced when the recipient vector isdigested with the first restriction enzyme. The other flanking site inthe acceptor vector is for a fourth restriction enzyme which generatesblunt ends. The method includes contacting the recipient vector with thefirst and second restriction enzymes and the acceptor vector with thethird and fourth restriction enzymes, ligating the resulting linearmolecules, transforming a host cell with the ligation mixture, andselecting for host cells with desirable recombinant molecules, i.e.,vectors with the DNA sequence of interest and the acceptor vectorbackbone, e.g., vectors which lack the counter-selectable gene, andoptionally include a selectable marker present on the acceptor vectorbackbone. In one embodiment, the first and third restriction enzymes arethe same. In one embodiment, the second and fourth restriction enzymesare the same. In this manner, DNA sequences of interest may be movedfrom one expression vector to another, for instance, to express a fusionprotein encoded by a fusion of acceptor vector sequences, the exchangesite(s), and the DNA sequence of interest.

The invention also provides a method for producing a vector suitable forexpression of an amino acid sequence of interest. The method includescombining at least two vectors in a suitable buffer with one or morerestriction enzymes and optionally DNA ligase under conditions effectiveto result in digestion and optionally ligation to yield a mixtureoptionally comprising a third vector. A first vector includes a firstselectable marker gene and a DNA sequence of interest, which DNAsequence of interest is flanked by at least two restriction enzymesites, wherein at least one of the flanking restriction enzyme sites isa site for a first restriction enzyme which has infrequent restrictionsites in cDNAs or open reading frames from at least one species andgenerates complementary single-strand DNA overhangs, wherein at leastone of the flanking restriction enzyme sites is for a second restrictionenzyme which has infrequent restriction sites in cDNAs or open readingframes from at least one species and generates ends that are notcomplementary to the overhangs generated by the first restrictionenzyme, wherein digestion of the first vector generates a first linearDNA fragment which lacks the first selectable marker gene but comprisesthe DNA sequence of interest. A second vector includes a secondselectable marker gene which is distinguishable from the firstselectable marker gene and non-essential DNA sequences, optionallyincluding a counterselectable gene, which non-essential DNA sequencesare flanked by at least two restriction enzymes sites, wherein at leastone of the flanking restriction enzyme sites in the second vector is fora third restriction enzyme which generates single-strand DNA overhangswhich are complementary to the single-strand DNA overhangs generated bythe first restriction enzyme, wherein at least one of the flankingrestriction sites in the second vector is for a fourth restrictionenzyme which generates ends that are not complementary to the endsgenerated by the first or third restriction enzyme but can be ligated tothe ends generated by the second restriction enzyme. Digestion of thesecond vector with the third and fourth restriction enzymes generates asecond linear DNA fragment which lacks the non-essential DNA sequencesbut comprises the second selectable marker gene, wherein the secondlinear DNA fragment is flanked by ends which permit the oriented joiningof the first linear DNA fragment to the second linear DNA fragment. Inone embodiment, the second restriction enzyme generates blunt ends andthe first linear DNA fragment is flanked by a first single-strand DNAoverhang and a blunt end. In another embodiment, the first and thirdrestriction enzymes are not the same. In yet another embodiment, thesecond and fourth restriction enzymes are not the same. In yet a furtherembodiment, the second and fourth restriction enzymes generate bluntends.

In one embodiment, ligation and oriented joining yields a third vectorencoding a N-terminal fusion protein which is encoded by the DNAsequence of interest and nucleic acid sequences 5′ to the 3′ end of thesecond linear DNA fragment. In another embodiment, ligation and orientedjoining yields a third vector encoding a C-terminal fusion protein whichis encoded by the DNA sequence of interest and nucleic acid sequences 3′to the 5′ end of the second linear DNA fragment. In another embodiment,ligation and oriented joining yields a third vector encoding a fusionprotein which is encoded by the DNA sequence of interest and nucleicacid sequences 5′ and 3′ to the respective 3′ and 5′ end of the secondlinear DNA fragment. In yet another embodiment, ligation and orientedjoining yields a third vector encoding a fusion protein encoded by theDNA sequence of interest and the exchange site(s) created by theoriented joining. Optionally, the fusion protein is a GST fusionprotein, GFP fusion protein, thioredoxin fusion protein, maltose bindingprotein fusion protein, protease cleavage site fusion protein, metalbinding domain fusion protein or dehalogenase fusion protein, and/or ismore soluble, easier to purify or easier to detect relative to thecorresponding non-fusion protein.

The methods of the invention thus employ one or more restriction enzymesthat generate unique ends and optionally ligase to clone an open readingframe of interest. Vectors with one or more restriction enzyme sites forrestriction enzymes that provide unique ends are particularly useful indirectional cloning and ordered gene assembly. Moreover, the use of thevectors and methods of the invention is easy, inexpensive, fast,automatable, and results in high fidelity and transfer of open readingframes. Further, the vectors may be designed to express fusion proteinswith no or one to a few, e.g., less than 7, amino acid residues fused tothe N-terminus, C-terminus, or both the N— and C-termini. For instance,fusions generated with SflI sites flanking the DNA sequence of interestmay yield fusion proteins with 4 amino acid residues at the N-terminusand C-terminus, while fusions generated with SgfI/PmeI or SapI sitesflanking the DNA sequence of interest may yield fusion proteins with asingle amino acid residue only at the C-terminus. If SfiI or PmeI sitesare added to a DNA sequence of interest, e.g., using an amplificationreaction, an additional 3-5 bp flanking the recognition site may beincluded to increase cleavage efficiency. Moreover, N— and/or C-terminalfusions with fusion partner sequences useful in purification, e.g.,immobilization, solubilization, in situ detection, protein domainstudies, and protein-protein interactions, e.g., in vitro or in vivo,may be prepared, wherein fusion partner sequences are encoded byacceptor vector sequences and/or exchange sites.

Also provided is a recombinant host cell useful to reduce unintendedexpression from a vector. In one embodiment, the host cell is deficientin one or more inducible genes, for instance, the host cell does notexpress one or more rhamnose catalytic genes, e.g., the host cell isrhaBAD⁻, and comprises an expression vector, e.g., one which is stablyintroduced to the host cell. The expression vector comprises aninducible promoter for the one or more genes, which promoter has a lowlevel of uninduced expression and preferably has a relatively slowinduction profile but high final levels of expression, e.g., a rhaBADpromoter, and which promoter is operably linked to an open readingframe, such as one for a heterologous (non-native) transcriptionregulatory gene product, e.g., a RNA polymerase. In one embodiment, therecombinant host cell is deficient in rhamnose catabolism, and has arecombinant DNA molecule comprising a rhamnose-inducible promoteroperably linked to an open reading frame for a heterologous RNApolymerase. In one embodiment, the host cell is a prokaryotic cell, forinstance, an E. coli cell. In one embodiment, the heterologous RNApolymerase is a phage RNA polymerase, such as a T7 RNA polymerase. Therecombinant host cell may be contacted with an expression vectorcomprising a promoter for the heterologous RNA polymerase and an openreading frame of interest, and rhamnose, e.g., either simultaneously orsequentially.

Thus, the invention provides a method of inducing expression of a DNAsequence of interest in a host cell. The method includes contacting arecombinant host cell which is deficient in rhamnose catabolism, and hasa recombinant DNA molecule comprising a rhamnose-inducible promoteroperably linked to an open reading frame for a heterologous RNApolymerase, with rhamnose and an expression vector comprising a promoterfor the heterologous RNA polymerase operably linked to a DNA sequence ofinterest. In one embodiment, the DNA sequence of interest is flanked bytwo restriction enzyme sites, wherein one of the flanking restrictionenzyme sites is for a first restriction enzyme which has infrequentrestriction sites in cDNAs or open reading frames from at least onespecies and generates single-strand DNA overhangs, and wherein anotherflanking restriction enzyme site is for a second restriction enzymewhich has infrequent restriction sites in cDNAs or open reading framesfrom at least one species and generates ends that are not complementaryto the overhangs generated by the first restriction enzyme. In oneembodiment, the expression vector comprises a transcription terminatorsequence, e.g., rrnB, and a promoter 5′ to the open reading frame ofinterest, which promoter is upregulated by the heterologoustranscription regulatory gene product, as well as restriction sites forone or more infrequent cutters flanking the open reading frame, andoptionally, in the vector backbone, a selectable marker gene, a sequencewhich specifies a high vector copy number, and a sequence which reducesvector multimerization, e.g., cer. An expression vector comprising apromoter such as one for a heterologous transcription regulatory geneproduct, such as a RNA polymerase, which promoter is operably linked toan open reading frame of interest, may also be employed in an in vitrotranscription/translation system.

Further provided is an isolated nucleic acid fragment encoding barnasewhich lacks a secretory domain (signal), a vector comprising the nucleicacid fragment, such as one which comprises a promoter, for instance, aλP_(L) promoter linked to the nucleic acid fragment, isolated proteinencoded by the nucleic acid fragment, and a host cell comprising thevector. Optionally, the host cell expresses barstar. In one embodiment,the host cell expresses barstar from a promoter which is constitutivelyexpressed in prokaryotic cells. Optionally, the host cell is an E. colicell. In one embodiment, an open reading frame for barstar is expressedfrom a 4c promoter. In one embodiment, the vector system of theinvention includes a second vector comprising a counterselectable genecomprising a nucleic acid fragment encoding a bamase which lacks asecretory domain. For instance, the invention provides a methodcomprising introducing a vector comprising a nucleic acid fragmentencoding a bamase which lacks a secretory domain into a recombinant hostcell which expresses barstar from a promoter which is constitutivelyexpressed in prokaryotic cells.

Also provided is a method comprising introducing the vector system ofthe invention into a host cell, wherein the second vector comprises acounterselectable gene comprising a nucleic acid fragment encoding abarnase which lacks a secretory domain.

Also provided is a vector comprising an open reading frame 3′ to a DNAfragment of no more than 30 base pairs. The DNA fragment comprises aribosome binding site, a SgfI recognition site, and a sequence which,when present in mRNA, enhances the binding of the mRNA to the smallsubunit of a eukaryotic ribosome. In one embodiment, the DNA fragmentincludes AAGGAGCGATCGCCATGX (SEQ ID NO:1), and wherein X is A, T, G orC.

Further provided is a vector comprising a SgfI recognition site, asequence which comprises ATG and which sequence, when present in mRNA,enhances the binding of the mRNA to the small subunit of a eukaryoticribosome, and an open reading frame which begins at the ATG in thesequence.

The invention also includes a vector comprising a recognition site for afirst restriction enzyme that generates a 3′ TA overhang which is 5′ toa recognition site for a second restriction enzyme that generates bluntends, which vector, once digested with the first and second restrictionenzymes and ligated to a DNA fragment comprising an open reading frameflanked by an end generated by SgfI and an end generated by a thirdrestriction enzyme which has infrequent restriction sites in cDNAs oropen reading frames from at least one species and generates blunt ends,yields a recombinant vector comprising the open reading frame. In oneembodiment, the second and third restriction enzymes are the same. Inanother embodiment, the recognition site for the first restrictionenzyme is a recognition site for SgfI.

Also provided is a vector comprising a first open reading frame whichincludes a recognition site for a first restriction enzyme thatgenerates a 3′ TA overhang and a recognition site for a secondrestriction enzyme that is not in the open reading frame generates bluntends, which vector, once digested with the first and second restrictionenzymes and ligated to a DNA fragment comprising a second open readingflanked by an end generated by SgfI and a third restriction enzyme whichhas infrequent restriction sites in cDNAs or open reading frames from atleast one species and generates blunt ends, yields a recombinant vectorcomprising a third open reading frame comprising the first and secondopen reading frames, which third open reading frame encodes a fusionpeptide or protein.

Further provided is a vector comprising a ribosome binding site whichoptionally overlaps by one nucleotide with a SgfI recognition site and arecognition site for a first restriction enzyme that generates bluntends, which vector, once digested with SgfI and the first restrictionenzyme and ligated to a DNA fragment comprising an open reading frameencoding a peptide or polypeptide flanked by    5′ CGCCATGX₁Y₁ 3′TAGCGGTACX₂Y₂and a blunt end generated by a second restriction enzyme that hasinfrequent restriction sites in cDNAs or open reading frames from atleast one species and generates blunt ends, yields a recombinant vectorwhich encodes the peptide or polypeptide, wherein X₁ is the first codonwhich is 3′ to the start codon for the open reading frame, wherein X₂ isthe complement of X_(1,) wherein Y₁ is the remainder of the open readingframe, and wherein Y₂ is the complement of Y₁. In one embodiment,X₁=GR₁R₂, wherein R₁ or R₂=A, T, C or G.

Further provided is a vector comprising a first open reading frame whichincludes a PmeI recognition site and is flanked at the 5′ end by arecognition site for a first restriction enzyme that generatescomplementary single-strand DNA overhangs, which vector, once digestedwith PmeI and the first restriction enzyme, and ligated to a DNAfragment comprising a blunt end at the 5′ end of a second open readingframe and an end generated by a second restriction enzyme whichgenerates single-strand DNA overhangs which are complementary to thesingle-strand DNA overhangs generated by the first restriction enzyme,yields a recombinant vector comprising a third open reading framecomprising the first and second open reading frames. In one embodiment,the third open reading frame includes N₁N₂N₃GTTTN₄N₅R, wherein N₁N₂N₃and TN₄N₅ are codons that do not code for a stop codon, and wherein R isone or more codons. In another embodiment, the blunt end of the DNAfragment is generated by a restriction enzyme other than PmeI. In yetanother embodiment, the blunt end of the DNA fragment is generated byPmeI digestion.

The invention further includes a vector comprising a first open readingframe which includes a PmeI recognition site and is flanked at the 5′end by site for a first restriction enzyme that generates complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs. The vector, once digested with PmeI and thefirst restriction enzyme, and ligated to a DNA fragment comprising ablunt end and an end generated by a second restriction enzyme whichgenerates single-strand DNA overhangs which are complementary to thesingle-strand DNA overhangs generated by the first restriction enzyme,yields a recombinant vector which includes N₁N₂N₃GTTTN₄N₅, whereinN₁N₂N₃GTTT is a sequence from the 3′ end of the digested expressionvector. In one embodiment, the triplet N₁N₂N₃ does not code for a stopcodon, and N₄ and N₅=A, or N₄=A and N₅=G or N₄=G and N₅=A. In anotherembodiment, the triplet N₁N₂N₃ codes for a stop codon. In oneembodiment, the blunt end of the DNA fragment is generated by PmeIdigestion. In another embodiment, the blunt end of the DNA fragment isgenerated by a restriction enzyme other than PmeI.

The invention provides a recombinant vector prepared by digesting avector comprising a recognition site for a first restriction enzyme thatgenerates a 3′ TA overhang which is 5′ to a recognition site for asecond restriction enzyme which generates blunt ends, with the first andsecond restriction enzymes and ligating the digested vector to a DNAfragment comprising an open reading frame flanked by an end generated bySglI and an end generated by a third restriction enzyme which hasinfrequent restriction sites in cDNAs or open reading frames from atleast one species and generates blunt ends.

Also provided is a support comprising a plurality of recombinantvectors, one or more of which comprise a different open reading frame.At least one of the recombinant vectors comprises a promoter and a firstopen reading frame which is flanked by two exchange sites. The exchangesites are formed by ligation of a vector comprising the promoter whichis 5′ to a recognition site for a first restriction enzyme thatgenerates a 3′ TA overhang which is 5′ to a recognition site for a firstrestriction enzyme which generates blunt ends, which vector is digestedwith the first and second restriction enzymes, and a DNA sequencecomprising the first open reading frame flanked by an end generated bySgfI and an end generated by a third restriction enzyme which hasinfrequent restriction sites in cDNAs or open reading frames from atleast one species and generates blunt ends. A library of recombinantcells comprising the at least one recombinant vector or a library ofvectors comprising the at least one recombinant vector is also provided.

In another embodiment, the support comprises a plurality of recombinantvectors, two or more of which comprise an open reading frame for adifferent polypeptide At least one recombinant vector comprises apromoter and a first open reading frame comprising a second open readingframe and one or more codons which are in-frame with the second openreading frame, wherein the second open reading frame is flanked by twoexchange sites. The exchange sites are formed by ligation of a DNAsequence comprising the second open reading frame which includes a PmeIrecognition site and is flanked at the 5′ end by a recognition site fora first restriction enzyme that generates complementary single-strandDNA overhangs, which DNA sequence is digested with PmeI and the firstrestriction enzyme, and a vector comprising a blunt end at the 5′ endwhich is 5′ to the one or more in-frame codons and the promoter which is5′ to an end generated by a second restriction enzyme which generatessingle-strand DNA overhangs which are complementary to the single-strandDNA overhangs generated by the first restriction enzyme. A library ofrecombinant cells comprising the at least one recombinant vector or alibrary of vectors comprising the at least one recombinant vector isalso provided.

Also provided is a support comprising a plurality of recombinantvectors, two or more of which comprise an open reading frame for adifferent polypeptide, wherein at least one recombinant vector comprisesa promoter and an open reading frame which is flanked by two exchangesites. The exchange sites are formed by ligation of a DNA sequencecomprising the open reading frame which is flanked by at least tworestriction enzyme sites for a first restriction enzyme which is ahapaxoterministic restriction enzyme, which DNA sequence is digestedwith the first restriction enzyme to generate a first DNA fragmentflanked by a first pair of non-self complementary single-strand DNAoverhangs, and a vector comprising the promoter and non-essential DNAsequences that are flanked by two restriction enzyme sites for a secondrestriction enzyme which is a hapaxoterministic restriction enzyme,which vector is digested with the second restriction enzyme to generatea second DNA fragment which lacks non-essential DNA sequences and isflanked by a second pair of non-self complementary single-strand DNAoverhangs. Each of the second pair of the non-self-complementary DNAoverhangs is complementary to only one of the single-strand DNAoverhangs of the first pair of non-self complementary single-strand DNAoverhangs. A library of recombinant cells comprising the at least onerecombinant vector or a library of vectors comprising the at least onerecombinant vector is also provided.

The invention further provides a method to prepare a support comprisinga plurality of recombinant vectors or recombinant cells. The methodincludes selecting a plurality of recombinant vectors or recombinantcells comprising recombinant vectors, wherein two or more of therecombinant vectors comprise an open reading frame for a differentpolypeptide, wherein at least one recombinant vector comprises apromoter and a first open reading frame which is flanked by two exchangesites. The exchange sites are formed by ligation of a vector comprisingthe promoter which is 5′ to a recognition site for a first restrictionenzyme that generates a 3′ TA overhang, which is 5′ to a recognitionsite for a second restriction enzyme which generates blunt ends, whichvector is digested with the first and second restriction enzymes, and aDNA sequence comprising the first open reading frame flanked by an endgenerated by SgfI and an end generated by a third restriction enzymewhich has infrequent restriction sites in cDNAs or open reading framesfrom at least one species and generates blunt ends. The selectedrecombinant vectors or recombinant cells are then introduced to one ormore receptacles of the support.

Further provided is a method to prepare a support comprising a pluralityof recombinant vectors or recombinant cells. In this embodiment, aplurality of recombinant vectors or recombinant cells comprisingrecombinant vectors is selected, wherein two or more of the recombinantvectors comprise an open reading frame for a different polypeptide,wherein at least one recombinant vector comprises a promoter and a firstopen reading frame comprising a second open reading frame and one ormore codons which are in-frame with the second open reading frame,wherein the second open reading frame is flanked by two exchange sites.The exchange sites are formed by ligation of a DNA sequence comprisingthe second open reading frame which includes a PmeI recognition site andis flanked at the 5′ end by a recognition site for a first restrictionenzyme that generates complementary single-strand DNA overhangs, whichDNA sequence is digested with PmeI and the first restriction enzyme, anda vector comprising a blunt end at the 5′ end which is 5′ to the one ormore codons and the promoter which is 5′ to an end generated by a secondrestriction enzyme which generates single-strand DNA overhangs which arecomplementary to the single-strand DNA overhangs generated by the firstrestriction enzyme. The selected recombinant vectors or recombinantcells are introduced to one or more receptacles of the support.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a method to prepare a supportcomprising a plurality of recombinant vectors or recombinant cells,which includes selecting a plurality of recombinant vectors orrecombinant cells comprising recombinant vectors, wherein two or more ofthe recombinant vectors comprise an open reading frame for a differentpolypeptide. At least one recombinant vector comprises a promoter and anopen reading frame which is flanked by two exchange sites, wherein theexchange sites are formed by ligation of a DNA sequence comprising theopen reading frame which is flanked by at least two restriction enzymesites for a first restriction enzyme which is a hapaxoterministicrestriction enzyme, which DNA sequence is digested with the firstrestriction enzyme to generate a first DNA fragment flanked by a firstpair of non-self complementary single-strand DNA overhangs, and a vectorcomprising the promoter and non-essential DNA sequences that are flankedby two restriction enzyme sites for a second restriction enzyme which isa hapaxoterministic restriction enzyme, which vector is digested withthe second restriction enzyme to generate a second DNA fragment whichlacks non-essential DNA sequences and is flanked by a second pair ofnon-self complementary single-strand DNA overhangs. Each of the secondpair of the non-self-complementary DNA overhangs is complementary toonly one of the single-strand DNA overhangs of the first pair ofnon-self complementary single-strand DNA overhangs. The selectedrecombinant vectors or recombinant cells are introduced to one or morereceptacles of the support.

Also provided is a method to prepare a plurality of mutagenizedrecombinant vectors. The method includes providing DNAs comprising aplurality of mutagenized open reading frames flanked by a recognitionsite for a first restriction enzyme that generates a 3′ TA overhang andsite for a second restriction enzyme which has infrequent restrictionsites in cDNAs or open reading frames from at least one species andgenerates blunt ends. The DNAs are digested with the first and secondrestriction enzymes and ligated to a vector comprising a promoter whichis 5′ to a SgfI recognition site which is 5′ to a recognition site for athird restriction enzyme which generates blunt ends, which vector isdigested with SgfI and the third restriction enzyme, yielding aplurality of mutagenized recombinant vectors.

In one embodiment, DNAs comprising a plurality of mutagenized openreading frames are flanked by a SgfI recognition site and a site for afirst restriction enzyme which has infrequent restriction sites in cDNAsor open reading frames from at least one species and generates bluntends, and the DNAs are digested with SgfI and the first restrictionenzyme and ligated to a vector comprising a promoter which is 5′ to arecognition site for a second restriction enzyme that generates 3′ TAoverhang which is 5′ to a recognition site for a third restrictionenzyme which generates blunt ends, which vector is digested with thesecond and third restriction enzymes, yielding a plurality ofmutagenized recombinant vectors.

The invention also includes a method to prepare a plurality ofmutagenized recombinant vectors, which includes providing DNAscomprising a plurality of mutagenized open reading frames flanked by tworestriction enzyme sites for a first restriction enzyme which is ahapaxoterministic restriction enzyme and generates a first pair ofnon-self complementary single-strand DNA overhangs. The DNAs aredigested with the first restriction enzyme and ligated to a vectorcomprising a promoter and non-essential DNA sequences flanked by tworestriction enzyme sites for a second restriction enzyme which is ahapaxoterministic restriction enzyme, which vector is digested with thesecond restriction enzyme generating a DNA fragment which lacksnon-essential DNA sequences but comprises a second pair of non-selfcomplementary single-strand DNA overhangs, wherein each of the secondpair of the non-self-complementary DNA overhangs is complementary toonly one of the single-strand DNA overhangs of the first pair ofnon-self complementary single-strand DNA overhangs, yielding a pluralityof mutagenized recombinant vectors.

The vectors of the invention and methods of the invention which employthe vectors, are particularly useful in directional cloning of openreading frames. However, the vectors and methods of the invention areuseful in other applications, for example, they may be employed toprepare probes, e.g., radioactive or nonradioactive probes, forinstance, using vectors with promoters specific for a polymerase, suchas bacteriophage polymerases, to prepare single-strand sense oranti-sense probes or therapeutic antisense RNA; or to insert a gene inan antisense orientation such that it is not expressed or expressed onlyafter structural rearrangement (conditional gene inactivation), e.g.,via recombination with Cre/lox (U.S. Pat. No. 5,658,772), FLP/FRT, theGin recombinase of Mu, the Pin recombinase of E. coli, and the R/RSsystem of the pSR1 plasmid.

Also provided is a method for performing genetic analysis. The methodcomprises populating a database of genetic data with genetic data tocreate a plurality of genetic records. The database containing geneticdata is queried to identify a first subset of genetic records, whereineach record has at least one recognition site for restriction enzymesincluded in a set of predetermined restriction enzymes, and a set ofstatistics associated with the restriction enzyme recognition sites forat least a second subset of genetic records in the first subset isdetermined.

In one embodiment, determining the set of statistics includesdetermining a number of genetic records including recognition sites forone predetermined restriction enzyme or for each of the predeterminedrestriction enzymes in the set. In another embodiment, determining theset of statistics includes determining a number of occurrences of atleast one site for the one predetermined restriction enzyme or for thepredetermined restriction enzymes in a genetic record in the secondsubset. In yet another embodiment, the genetic records comprise nucleicacid sequences. In one embodiment, the method further includes filteringthe subset of genetic records to include or exclude genetic recordshaving one or more selected characteristics. In yet another embodiment,the method further includes filtering the subset of genetic records toexclude genetic records having a size greater than a predeterminedvalue. In one embodiment, the predetermined value is 21000 characters.The method may also include determining the sequence of specific baseswhich are present as ambiguous bases within a recognition site or whichare present between a recognition site for a restriction enzyme and theposition at which the restriction enzyme cleaves DNA containing therecognition site. In one embodiment, at least one of the restrictionenzymes has a 6 bp, 7 bp or 8 bp recognition site. In one embodiment, atleast one of the restriction enzymes is a hapaxoterministic restrictionenzyme.

Further provided is a computer-readable medium having computerexecutable instructions for performing a method for performing geneticanalysis. The medium includes populating a database of genetic data witha plurality of genetic records, querying the database of genetic data toidentify a first subset of genetic records, wherein each record has atleast one recognition site for one predetermined restriction enzyme orfor restriction enzymes included in a set of predetermined restrictionenzymes, and determining a set of statistics associated with therestriction enzyme recognition sites for at least a second subset ofgenetic records in the first subset. Also provided is a computerizedsystem for genetic analysis. The system includes a database of geneticdata, a processor, a set of one or more programs executed by theprocessor causing the processor to query the database of genetic data toidentify a first subset of genetic records, wherein each record has atleast one recognition site for one predetermined restriction enzyme orfor restriction enzymes included in a set of predetermined restrictionenzymes, and determine a set of statistics associated with therestriction enzyme recognition sites for at least a second subset ofgenetic records in the first subset. In one embodiment, the set ofstatistics includes, e.g., includes determining, a number of geneticrecords including recognition sites for one predetermined restrictionenzyme or for each of the predetermined restriction enzymes in the set.In one embodiment, the set of statistics includes, e.g., includesdetermining, a number of occurrences of at least one site for the onepredetermined restriction enzyme or for the predetermined restrictionenzymes in a genetic record in the second subset. In one embodiment, thegenetic records comprise nucleic acid sequences. In one embodiment, themethod further comprises filtering, or a processor is further operableto filter, the subset of genetic records to include or exclude geneticrecords having one or more selected characteristics. In anotherembodiment, the method further comprises filtering, or a processor isfurther operable to filter, the subset of genetic records to excludegenetic records having a size greater than a predetermined value. In oneembodiment, the predetermined value is 21000 characters. In anotherembodiment, the method further comprises determining, or a processor isfurther operable to determine, a sequence of specific bases which arepresent as ambiguous bases within a recognition site or which arepresent between a recognition site for a restriction enzyme and theposition at which the restriction enzyme cleaves DNA containing therecognition site.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1. Exemplary hapaxomers.

FIGS. 2A-B. Examples of hapaxomers with 3′ or 5′ overhangs. A) Thesymmetry of the site recognized by AlwNI, a restriction enzyme thatcleaves an interrupted palindrome within the recognition site. If thebases denoted “N” are ignored, the site is symmetrically equivalent to aPvuII site. Arrows indicate the cleavage sites on both strands. Notethat a recognition and cleavage site on only one strand must bestipulated owing to the existence of a two-fold axis of symmetry.However, because cleavage by AlwNI results in DNA with overhangsconsisting of three bases with four possibilities for each unspecifiedbase, the sequence at the termini will be different depending on thestrand. B) The FokI recognition and cleavage sites illustrated in bothorientations. Because the site lacks symmetry, there are two ways towrite the bases from 5′ to 3′. The cleavage sites on both strands,indicated by arrows, must be specified in order to indicate wherecutting will occur. Because the cleavage sites are outside therecognition site, the single-stranded overhangs can be any set of fourbases. Note that AlwNI generates 3′ overhangs, whereas FokI generates 5′overhangs.

FIG. 3. A flowchart to identify restriction enzymes that have infrequentrecognition sites in the genome of a particular organism.

FIG. 4. Comparison of the percent of sequences in various organismswhich lack (0), have no or one (0-1), or no, one or two (0-2)recognition sites for SapI, SfiI or SgfI/PmeI.

FIG. 5. Site frequencies of selected restriction enzymes in six species.

FIG. 6. General overview of the use of interrupted palindromes fordirectional cloning.

FIG. 7. Directional cloning using SfiI.

FIG. 8. PCR interrupted palindromes cloning pathways.

FIGS. 9A-B. PCR interrupted palindromes cloning pathways.

FIGS. 10A-B. PCR interrupted palindromes cloning pathways.

FIG. 11. Restriction endonucleases useful for directional cloning withSfiI or other restriction enzymes generating 3 base 3′ overhangs.

FIG. 12. General overview of the use of Type IIS enzymes for directionalcloning.

FIG. 13. Directional cloning using SapI.

FIGS. 14A-B. Two enzyme approach for directional cloning with an enzymethat generates staggered ends and an enzyme that generates blunt ends,e.g., SgfI and PmeI.

FIG. 15. Two enzyme cloning pathway with PCR entry.

FIG. 16. Use of SgfI to generate N-terminal fusions or no fusion at theN-terminus.

FIG. 17. Use of PmeI to generate C-terminal fusions including fusionswith a single amino acid.

FIG. 18. Use of a combination of SgfI, PmeI, PacI and SwaI to prepare avector encoding two proteins of interest.

FIGS. 19A-B. N-terminal PacI-SgtI fusion site and C-terminal PmeI-SwaIfusion site.

FIG. 20A. Exemplary luciferase donor and acceptor vectors of theinvention.

FIG. 20B. Analysis ligation of the donor and acceptor vector sequenceshaving SfiI sites flanking distinguishable luciferase genes.

FIG. 21A-E. Exemplary vectors of the invention. KanR=kanamycinresistance gene; AmpR=ampicillin resistance gene; ColE1 ori=origin ofreplication sequence; cer=XerCD site-specific recombinase target site;rrnB term=bidirectional terminator; T7 P=T7 RNA polymerase promoter;RBS/Kozak=ribosome binding site and Kozak sequences; and T7 term=T7 RNApolymerase termination sequence.

FIG. 22A. Luciferase expression after induction of expression in 3different hosts at 37° C.

FIG. 22B. Luciferase expression in 3 different hosts at 25° C., t=0.

FIG. 22C. Luciferase expression in 3 different hosts at 25° C., t=5hours and 21 hours.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Definitions

The term “unique restriction enzyme site” indicates that the recognitionsequence for a given restriction enzyme appears once within a nucleicacid molecule.

The terms “polylinker” or “multiple cloning site” refer to a cluster ofrestriction enzyme sites on a nucleic acid construct which are utilizedfor the insertion and/or excision of nucleic acid sequences such as thecoding region of a gene, lox sites, etc.

The term “prokaryotic termination sequence” refers to a nucleic acidsequence which is recognized by the RNA polymerase of a prokaryotic hostcell and results in the termination of transcription. Prokaryotictermination sequences commonly comprise a GC-rich region that has atwofold symmetry followed by an AT-rich sequence. Commonly usedprokaryotic termination sequences are the T7 and rrnB terminationsequences. A variety of termination sequences are known to the art andmay be employed in the nucleic acid constructs of the present inventionincluding, the T_(INT), T_(L1), T_(L2), T_(L3), T_(R1), T_(R2), T_(6S)termination signals derived from the bacteriophage lambda andtermination signals derived from bacterial genes such as the trp gene ofE. coli.

The term “eukaryotic polyadenylation sequence” (also referred to as a“poly A site” or “poly A sequence”) as used herein denotes a DNAsequence which directs both the termination and polyadenylation of thenascent RNA transcript. Efficient polyadenylation of the recombinanttranscript is desirable as transcripts lacking a poly A tail areunstable and are rapidly degraded. The poly A signal utilized in anexpression vector may be “heterologous” or “endogenous.” An endogenouspoly A signal is one that is found naturally at the 3′ end of the codingregion of a given gene in the genome. A heterologous poly A signal isone which is one which is isolated from one gene and placed 3′ ofanother gene. A commonly used heterologous poly A signal is the SV40poly A signal. The SV40 poly A signal is contained on a 237 bpBamHI/BclI restriction fragment and directs both termination andpolyadenylation (Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A LaboratoryManual, Cold Spring Harbor (1989)); numerous vectors contain the SV40poly A signal. Another commonly used heterologous poly A signal isderived from the bovine growth hormone (BGH) gene; the BGH poly A signalis available on a number of commercially available vectors. The poly Asignal from the herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase (HSV tk) gene isalso used as a poly A signal on expression vectors.

As used herein, the terms “selectable marker” or “selectable markergene” refers to the use of a gene which encodes an enzymatic activitythat confers the ability to grow in medium lacking what would otherwisebe an essential nutrient (e.g., the TRPl gene in yeast cells); inaddition, a selectable marker may confer resistance to an antibiotic ordrug upon the cell in which the selectable marker is expressed. Aselectable marker may be used to confer a particular phenotype upon ahost cell. When a host cell must express a selectable marker to grow inselective medium, the marker is said to be a positive selectable marker(e.g., antibiotic resistance genes which confer the ability to grow inthe presence of the appropriate antibiotic). Selectable markers can alsobe used to select against host cells containing a particular gene (e.g.,the sacB gene which, if expressed, kills the bacterial host cells grownin medium containing 5% sucrose); selectable markers used in this mannerare referred to as negative selectable markers or counter-selectablemarkers.

As used herein, the term “vector” is used in reference to nucleic acidmolecules that transfer DNA segment(s) from one cell to another. Theterm “vehicle” is sometimes used interchangeably with “vector.” A“vector” is a type of “nucleic acid construct.” The term “nucleic acidconstruct” includes circular nucleic acid constructs such as plasmidconstructs, plasmid constructs, cosmid vectors, etc. as well as linearnucleic acid constructs (e.g., lambda, phage constructs, PCR products).The nucleic acid construct may comprise expression signals such as apromoter and/or an enhancer (in such a case it is referred to as anexpression vector).

The term “expression vector” as used herein refers to a recombinant DNAmolecule containing a desired coding sequence and appropriate nucleicacid sequences necessary for the expression of the operably linkedcoding sequence in a particular host organism. Nucleic acid sequencesnecessary for expression in procaryotes usually include a promoter, anoperator (optional), and a ribosome binding site, often along with othersequences. Eukaryotic cells are known to utilize promoters, enhancers,and termination and polyadenylation signals.

The terms “in operable combination”, “in operable order” and “operablylinked” as used herein refer to the linkage of nucleic acid sequences insuch a manner that a nucleic acid molecule capable of directing thetranscription of a given gene and/or the synthesis of a desired proteinmolecule is produced. The term also refers to the linkage of amino acidsequences in such a manner so that a functional protein is produced.

The terms “transformation” and “transfection” as used herein refer tothe introduction of foreign DNA into prokaryotic or eucaryotic cells.Transformation of prokaryotic cells may be accomplished by a variety ofmeans known to the art including the treatment of host cells with CaCl₂to make competent cells, electroporation, etc. Transfection ofeukaryotic cells may be accomplished by a variety of means known to theart including calcium phosphate-DNA co-precipitation,DEAE-dextran-mediated transfection, polybrene-mediated transfection,electroporation, microinjection, liposome fusion, lipofection,protoplast fusion, retroviral infection, and biolistics.

As used herein, the terms “restriction endonucleases” and “restrictionenzymes” refer to bacterial enzymes, each of which cut double-strandedDNA at or near a specific nucleotide sequence.

As used herein, the term “recombinant DNA molecule” as used hereinrefers to a DNA molecule which is comprised of segments of DNA joinedtogether by means of molecular biological techniques.

As used herein, “recognition site” refers to a sequence of specificbases that is recognized by a restriction enzyme if the sequence ispresent in double-stranded DNA; or, if the sequence is present insingle-stranded RNA, the sequence of specific bases that would berecognized by a restriction enzyme if the RNA was reverse transcribedinto cDNA and the cDNA employed as a template with a DNA polymerase togenerate a double-stranded DNA; or, if the sequence is present insingle-stranded DNA, the sequence of specific bases that would berecognized by a restriction enzyme if the single-stranded DNA wasemployed as a template with a DNA polymerase to generate adouble-stranded DNA; or, if the sequence is present in double-strandedRNA, the sequence of specific bases that would be recognized by arestriction enzyme if either strand of RNA was reverse transcribed intocDNA and the cDNA employed as a template with a DNA polymerase togenerate a double-stranded DNA.

An “open reading frame” includes at least 3 consecutive codons which arenot stop codons.

DNA molecules are said to have “5′ ends” and “3′ ends” becausemononucleotides are reacted to make oligonucleotides in a manner suchthat the 5′ phosphate of one mononucleotide pentose ring is attached tothe 3′ oxygen of its neighbor in one direction via a phosphodiesterlinkage. Therefore, an end of an oligonucleotides referred to as the “5′end” if its 5′ phosphate is not linked to the 3′ oxygen of amononucleotide pentose ring and as the “3′ end” if its 3′ oxygen is notlinked to a 5′ phosphate of a subsequent mononucleotide pentose ring. Asused herein, a nucleic acid sequence, even if internal to a largeroligonucleotide, also may be said to have 5′ and 3′ ends. In either alinear or circular DNA molecule, discrete elements are referred to asbeing “upstream” or 5′ of the “downstream” or 3′ elements. Thisterminology reflects the fact that transcription proceeds in a 5′ to 3′fashion along the DNA strand. The promoter and enhancer elements whichdirect transcription of a linked gene are generally located 5′ orupstream of the coding region. However, enhancer elements can exerttheir effect even when located 3′ of the promoter element and the codingregion. Transcription termination and polyadenylation signals arelocated 3′ or downstream of the coding region.

As used herein, the term “an oligonucleotide having a nucleotidesequence encoding a gene” means a nucleic acid sequence comprising thecoding region of a gene or in other words the nucleic acid sequencewhich encodes a gene product. The coding region may be present in eithera cDNA, genomic DNA or RNA form. When present in a DNA form, theoligonucleotide may be single-stranded (i.e., the sense strand) ordouble-stranded. Suitable control elements such as enhancers/promoters,splice junctions, polyadenylation signals, etc. may be placed in closeproximity to the coding region of the gene if needed to permit properinitiation of transcription and/or correct processing of the primary RNAtranscript. Alternatively, the coding region utilized in the vectors ofthe present invention may contain endogenous enhancers/promoters, splicejunctions, intervening sequences, polyadenylation signals, etc. or acombination of both endogenous and exogenous control elements.

As used herein, the term “regulatory element” refers to a geneticelement which controls some aspect of the expression of nucleic acidsequences. For example, a promoter is a regulatory element whichfacilitates the initiation of transcription of an operably linked codingregion. Other regulatory elements include splicing signals,polyadenylation signals, termination signals and the like.

Transcriptional control signals in eukaryotes comprise “promoter” and“enhancer” elements. Promoters and enhancers consist of short arrays ofDNA sequences that interact specifically with cellular proteins involvedin transcription (Maniatis et al., Science, 236:1237 (1987)). Promoterand enhancer elements have been isolated from a variety of eukaryoticsources including genes in yeast, insect and mammalian cells and viruses(analogous control elements, i.e., promoters, are also found inprokaryotes). The selection of a particular promoter and enhancerdepends on what cell type is to be used to express the protein ofinterest. Some eukaryotic promoters and enhancers have a broad hostrange while others are functional in a limited subset of cell types (forreview see Voss et al., Trends Biochem. Sci., 11:287 (1986) and Maniatiset al., supra (1987)). For example, the SV40 early gene enhancer is veryactive in a wide variety of cell types from many mammalian species andhas been widely used for the expression of proteins in mammalian cells(Dijkema et al., EMBO J., 4:761 (1985)). Two other examples ofpromoter/enhancer elements active in a broad range of mammalian celltypes are those from the human elongation factor 10 gene (Uetsuki etal., J. Biol. Chem., 264:5791 (1989), Kim et al., Gene, 91:217 (1990)and Mizushima et al., Nuc. Acids. Res., 18:5322 (1990)) and the longterminal repeats of the Rous sarcoma virus (Gorman et al., Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. USA, 79:6777 (1982)) and the human cytomegalovirus (Boshartet al., Cell, 41:521 (1985)).

As used herein, the term “promoter/enhancer” denotes a segment of DNAwhich contains sequences capable of providing both promoter and enhancerfunctions (i.e., the functions provided by a promoter element and anenhancer element, see above for a discussion of these functions). Forexample, the long terminal repeats of retroviruses contain both promoterand enhancer functions. The enhancer/promoter may be “endogenous” or“exogenous” or “heterologous.” An “endogenous” enhancer/promoter is onewhich is naturally linked with a given gene in the genome. An“exogenous” or “heterologous” enhancer/promoter is one which is placedin juxtaposition to a gene by means of genetic manipulation (i.e.,molecular biological techniques) such that transcription of that gene isdirected by the linked enhancer/promoter.

The presence of “splicing signals” on an expression vector often resultsin higher levels of expression of the recombinant transcript. Splicingsignals mediate the removal of introns from the primary RNA transcriptand consist of a splice donor and acceptor site (Sambrook et al.,Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd ed., Cold Spring HarborLaboratory Press, New York (1989) pp. 16.7-16.8). A commonly used splicedonor and acceptor site is the splice junction from the 16S RNA of SV40.

Efficient expression of recombinant DNA sequences in eucaryotic cellsrequires expression of signals directing the efficient termination andpolyadenylation of the resulting transcript. Transcription terminationsignals are generally found downstream of the polyadenylation signal andare a few hundred nucleotides in length. The term “poly A site” or “polyA sequence” as used herein denotes a DNA sequence which directs both thetermination and polyadenylation of the nascent RNA transcript. Efficientpolyadenylation of the recombinant transcript is desirable astranscripts lacking a poly A tail are unstable and are rapidly degraded.The poly A signal utilized in an expression vector may be “heterologous”or “endogenous.” An endogenous poly A signal is one that is foundnaturally at the 3′ end of the coding region of a given gene in thegenome. A heterologous poly A signal is one which is one which isisolated from one gene and placed 3′ of another gene.

Eukaryotic expression vectors may also contain “viral replicons” or“viral origins of replication.” Viral replicons are viral DNA sequenceswhich allow for the extrachromosomal replication of a vector in a hostcell expressing the appropriate replication factors. Vectors whichcontain either the SV40 or polyoma virus origin of replication replicateto high copy number (up to 10⁴ copies/cell) in cells that express theappropriate viral T antigen. Vectors which contain the replicons frombovine papillomavirus or Epstein-Barr virus replicate extrachromosomallyat low copy number (about 100 copies/cell).

As used herein, the terms “nucleic acid molecule encoding,” “DNAsequence encoding,” and “DNA encoding” refer to the order or sequence ofdeoxyribonucleotides along a strand of deoxyribonucleic acid. The orderof these deoxyribonucleotides determines the order of amino acids alongthe polypeptide (protein) chain. The DNA sequence thus codes for theamino acid sequence.

As used herein, the term “gene” means the deoxyribonucleotide sequencescomprising the coding region of a gene, e.g., a structural gene, and theincluding sequences located adjacent to the coding region on both the 5′and 3′ ends for a distance of about 1 kb on either end such that thegene corresponds to the length of the full-length mRNA. The sequenceswhich are located 5′ of the coding region and which are present on themRNA are referred to as 5′ non-translated sequences. The sequences whichare located 3′ or downstream of the coding region and which are presenton the mRNA are referred to as 3′ non-translated sequences; thesesequences. The term “gene” encompasses both cDNA and genomic forms of agene. A genomic form or clone of a gene contains the coding regioninterrupted with non-coding sequences termed “introns” or “interveningregions” or “intervening sequences.” Introns are segments of a genewhich are transcribed into nuclear RNA (hnRNA); introns may containregulatory elements such as enhancers. Introns are removed or “splicedout” from the nuclear or primary transcript; introns therefore areabsent in the messenger RNA (mRNA) transcript. The mRNA functions duringtranslation to specify the sequence or order of amino acids in a nascentpolypeptide.

In addition to containing introns, genomic forms of a gene may alsoinclude sequences located on both the 5′ and 3′ end of the sequenceswhich are present on the RNA transcript. These sequences are referred toas “flanking” sequences or regions (these flanking sequences are located5′ or 3′ to the non-translated sequences present on the mRNAtranscript). The 5′ flanking region may contain regulatory sequencessuch as promoters and enhancers which control or influence thetranscription of the gene. The 3′ flanking region may contain sequenceswhich direct the termination of transcription, post-transcriptionalcleavage and polyadenylation.

As used herein, the term “purified” or “to purify” refers to the removalof contaminants from a sample.

The term “recombinant DNA molecule” as used herein refers to a DNAmolecule which is comprised of segments of DNA joined together by meansof molecular biological techniques.

The term “recombinant protein” or “recombinant polypeptide” as usedherein refers to a protein molecule which is expressed from arecombinant DNA molecule.

The term “native protein” as used herein to indicate that a protein doesnot contain amino acid residues encoded by vector sequences; that is thenative protein contains only those amino acids found in the protein asit occurs in nature. A native protein may be produced by recombinantmeans or may be isolated from a naturally occurring source.

As used herein the term “portion” when in reference to a protein (as in“a portion of a given protein”) refers to fragments of that protein. Thefragments may range in size from two or more amino acid residues to theentire amino acid sequence minus one amino acid.

As used herein, the term “fusion protein” refers to a chimeric proteincontaining the protein of interest joined to a different peptide orprotein fragment. The fusion partner may, for example, enhance thesolubility of a linked protein of interest, may provide an epitope tagor affinity domain to allow identification and/or purification of therecombinant fusion protein, e.g., from a host cell which expresses thefusion or a culture supernatant of that cell, or both, or may haveanother property or activity, e.g., two functional enzymes can be fusedto produce a single protein with multiple enzymatic activities. Ifdesired, the fusion protein may be removed from the protein of interestby a variety of enzymatic or chemical means known to the art. Thus,examples of fusion protein producing sequences useful in the vectors ofthe invention include epitope tag encoding sequences, affinity domainencoding sequences, or other functional protein encoding sequences, andthe like. The use of the term “functional protein encoding sequence”, asused herein, indicates that the fusion protein producing element of avector encodes a protein or peptide having a particular activity, suchas an enzymatic activity, e.g., luciferase or dehalogenase, a bindingactivity, and the like, e.g., thioredoxin. For example, a functionalprotein encoding sequence may encode a kinase catalytic domain (Hanksand Hunter, FASEB J. 9:576-595, 1995), producing a fusion protein thatcan enzymatically add phosphate moieties to particular amino acids, ormay encode a Src Homology 2 (SH2) domain (Sadowski, et al., Mol. Cell.Bio., 6:4396, 1986; Mayer and Baltimore, Trends Cell. Biol., 3:8, 1993),producing a fusion protein that specifically binds to phosphorylatedtyrosines.

I. Restriction Enzyme Sites and Enzymes Useful in the Vectors andMethods of the Invention

The present invention employs two general approaches to directionalcloning and ordered gene assembly. In one approach, restriction sitesfor hapaxoterministic restriction enzymes, e.g., those with degeneraterecognition or cleavage sequences (see FIGS. 1-2), are employed.Hapaxoterministic enzymes are enzymes able to generate unique ends(Table 1). FokI, a type IIS enzyme, is included and so is AlwNI, aninterrupted palindrome. Because the cleavage site is located among theunspecified bases, the termini are expressed in N's. Unless the completenucleotide sequence within the interruption or flanking the recognitionsite is written, the detailed nature of the ends cannot be stated;statistically speaking, all single stranded overhangs will be different.It is also unlikely that these overhangs possess elements of symmetry.In the general case, this means that the protruding bases are notcomposed of an asymmetric unit followed by its reverse complement; theends will not be self-complementary; and it will not be possible to formconcatamers with a fragment bearing such ends. With nonhapaxoterministicenzymes such as EcoRI the opposite situation prevails; both therecognition site, G ↓AATTC, and the overhanging ends produced bycleavage, AATT, always display palindrome-like elements; and theoverhang of any fragment is complementary with itself and with theprotruding ends of all other fragments generated by the same enzyme.TABLE 1       ↓       ↓ Alw NI CAGNNNCTG Dra CACNNNGTG GTCNNNGAC IIIGTGNNNCAC    ↑    ↑         ↓        ↓ Bbs I GAAGACNN Ear I CTCTTCNCTTCTGNNNNNN GAGAAGNNNN             ↑           ↑               ↓       ↓ Bbv I GCAGCNNNNNNNN Esp3 I CGTCTCN GGTCGNNNNNNNNNNNNGCAGAGNNNNN                  ↑            ↑        ↓               ↓ BglI GCCNNNNNGGC Fok I GGATGNNNNNNNNN CGGNNNNNCCG CCTACNNNNNNNNNNNNN     ↑                  ↑        ↓ Bsa I GGTCTCN Hga I GACGCNNNNN CCAGAGNNNNNCTGCGNNNNNNNNNN            ↑        ↓        ↓ Bsl I CCNNNNNNNGG Mwo IGCNNNNNNNNGC GGNNNNNNNCC CGNNNNNNNNCG     ↑     ↑       ↓        ↓ BsmAI GTCTCN Pfl MI CCANNNNNTGG CAGAGNNNNN GGTNNNNNACC           ↑     ↑                ↓         ↓ Bsm FI GTCCCNNNNNNNNNN Sap I GCTCTTCNCAGGGNNNNNNNNNNNNNN CGAGAAGNNNN ↑            ↑          ↓           ↓Bsp MI ACCTGNNNN Sfa NI GCATCNNNNN TGGACGNNNNNNNN CGTAGNNNNNNNNN              ↑               ↑         ↓         ↓ Bst XI CCANNNNNNTGGSfi I GGCCNNNNNGGCC GGTNNNNNNACC CCGGNNNNNCCGG     ↑      ↑Note. The cleavage sites are indicated by the arrows. Isoschizomersoccur in several cases. The enzymes listed and their isoschizomers areas follows: BbsI, Bsc91I; BbvI, BstI, Bst71I; BsaI, Eco31I, BsmAI,Alw26I; EarI, Ksp632I; and PflMI, AccB7I.

Enzymes which generate blunt ends can never be hapaxoterministic. Forinstance, the restriction site for BsaBI has N's but the enzyme producesblunt end.

There are enzymes that are formally, but not functionally, hapaxomers.In this category are restriction endonucleases that generate overhangsof only one or two unspecified bases such as AlwI and BpmI, respectively(Table 2). Conversely, those type II enzymes which recognize sites withmultiple degeneracies are functionally, but not formally, hapaxomers.For example, if a fragment were to be cut at several locations byBsp1286I (Table 2), an array of single stranded extensions, e.g., GGCC,TGCA, AGCT, GGCA, GGCT, AGCC, AGCA, TGCC, and TGCT, might occur. Thefirst three of these possess an obvious element of symmetry whicheliminates them from consideration. The last six protrusions do notpossess an element of symmetry and, therefore, are neitherself-complementary nor self-ligatable; they have the potential to beunique. On that basis Bsp1286I is a hapaxomer. Hapaxoterminicity is theability to generate a finite percentage of overhangs lacking insymmetry. The symmetry or lack thereof of the restriction enzymerecognition site is of no consequence. TABLE 2          ↓ A hapaxomerwith Alw I GGATCNNNN an overhang of one CCTAGNNNNN base           ↑ BpmI                       ↓ A hapaxomer with CTGGAGNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN anoverhang of two GACCTCNNNNNNNNNNNNNN bases                     ↑ Bsp1286 I  G  C ↓ An honorary GAGCAC hapaxomer  T  T  C  G CTCGTG  ↑A  A

Bsp1286I has overhangs of four bases on each strand; two bases areuniquely specified and two are restricted to one of three possibilities.Clearly, the statistical probability that the ends are unique is lessthan that of enzymes which generate two completely unspecifiedoverhanging bases. Such enzymes include BcgI, BpmI, BsaJI, BsgI, BsrDI,DrdI, and Eco57I.

In one embodiment of the invention, a donor vector is obtained orprepared. The donor vector includes a DNA sequence of interest flankedby at least two restriction enzyme sites, at least one of which is for afirst restriction enzyme with a degenerate recognition sequence. Inanother embodiment, the DNA sequence of interest is flanked by tworestriction enzyme sites for a restriction enzyme with a degeneraterecognition sequence, which sites are not identical and so, once thedonor vector is cleaved with that enzyme, yields a linear DNA withnon-self complementary single-strand DNA overhangs. The donor vectoralso contains at least one selectable marker gene which optionally isnot the DNA sequence of interest, e.g., the selectable marker gene ispart of the vector backbone. The donor vector is useful to transfer theDNA sequence of interest in an oriented manner to an acceptor vector forexpression of the DNA sequence of interest in the resulting recipientvector. The acceptor vector contains non-essential DNA sequences flankedby at least two restriction enzyme sites for a second restriction enzymewith a degenerate recognition sequence which yields non-selfcomplementary single-strand DNA overhangs. Those sites, once cleaved,yield single-strand DNA overhangs that are each complementary to onlyone of the two single-strand DNA overhangs generated by the firstrestriction enzyme. In one embodiment, the first and second restrictionenzymes are the same. In another embodiment, the first and secondrestriction enzymes are different and are not isoschizomers and so, theresulting ligated sequences (the exchange site) are not cleavable by atleast one of restriction enzymes having a degenerate recognitionsequence that is employed to transfer the DNA sequence of interest. Forexample, the fusion of single-strand DNA overhangs generated by BglI andsingle-strand DNA overhangs generated by SfiI results in an exchangesite that is not cleavable by SfiI, but is cleavable by BglI. Similarly,the fusion of single-strand DNA overhangs generated by SgfI andsingle-strand DNA overhangs generated by PvuI results in an exchangesite that is not cleavable by SgfI, but is cleavable by PvuI. Further,the fusion of ends generated by PmeI and ends generated by DraI resultsin an exchange site that is not cleavable by PmeI, but is cleavable byDraI.

In another approach, a donor vector is obtained or prepared thatcontains a DNA sequence of interest flanked by at least two restrictionenzyme sites, one of which is for a first restriction enzyme which hasinfrequent restriction sites in cDNAs or open reading frames from atleast one species and generates single-strand DNA overhangs, and anotherof which is for a second restriction enzyme that has infrequentrestriction sites in cDNAs or open reading frames from at least onespecies and generates ends that are not complementary to the overhangsgenerated by the first restriction enzyme. In one embodiment, the secondrestriction enzyme generates blunt ends. The donor vector also containsat least one selectable marker gene which optionally is not the DNAsequence of interest. The donor vector is useful to transfer the DNAsequence of interest in an oriented manner to an acceptor vector forexpression of the DNA sequence of interest, resulting in a recipientvector. The acceptor vector contains non-essential DNA sequences flankedby at least two restriction enzyme sites. In one embodiment, thenon-essential DNA sequences comprise a counter-selectable gene, e.g., abarnase gene, a ccdB gene, or a SacB gene. One of the flankingrestriction sites in the acceptor vector is for a third restrictionenzyme which generates single-strand DNA overhangs, which overhangs arecomplementary to the single-strand DNA overhangs produced by digestionof the donor vector with the first restriction enzyme. In oneembodiment, the restriction site for the third restriction enzyme isdifferent than the restriction site for the first restriction enzyme andthe sites are not cleaved by the same restriction enzyme. In anotherembodiment, the first and third restriction enzymes are the same. Theother flanking restriction site in the acceptor vector is for a fourthrestriction enzyme which yields ends that are not complementary to theends generated by the first or third restriction enzyme. In oneembodiment, the second and fourth restriction enzymes generate bluntends. In one embodiment, the restriction site for the fourth restrictionenzyme is different than the restriction site for the second restrictionenzyme and the sites are not cleaved by the same restriction enzyme. Inthis manner, the exchange site is likely not cleavable by the second orfourth restriction enzyme. In another embodiment, the second and fourthrestriction enzymes are the same.

Thus, by designing a donor vector and an acceptor vector with selectedrestriction enzyme sites which are appropriately positioned, once thesevectors are digested with the respective restriction enzymes, the DNAsequence of interest can only be oriented in one direction in theacceptor vector backbone.

Restriction enzyme sites useful in the practice of the invention includebut are not limited to hapaxomeric sequences, sequences recognized byclass II enzymes or class IIS enzymes, as well as restriction enzymesites recognized by enzymes that yield blunt ends, and including enzymesthat are infrequent cutters in one or more species.

Suitable class IIS restriction enzymes include those enzymes thatrecognize a five-base contiguous sequence, including but not limited tothe following enzymes and their isoschizomers, which are indicated inparentheses: Alw26I (BsmAI), AlwI (AclWI, BinI), AsuHPI (HphI), BbvI(Bst71I), BcefI, BstF5I (BseGI, FokI), Faul, HgaI, MboII, PleI, SfaNI,and TspRI; that recognize a six-base contiguous sequence including butnot limited to the following enzymes and their isoschizomers: AceIII,BbsI (BbvII, BpiI, BpuAI), Bce83I, BciVI, BfiI (BmrI), BpmI (GsuI), BsaI(Eco31I), BseRI, BsgI, BsmBI (Esp3I), BsmFI, BspMI, BsrDI (Bse3DI),Bsu6I (Eam1104I, EarI, Ksp632I), Eco57I, FauI, MmeI, RleAI, TaqII, andTth111 II. SapI, and its isoschizomer VapK32I, which recognize aseven-base sequence, and SfiI, which recognizes an eight-base sequence,also can be used. Further examples of useful enzymes include those thatrecognize a four-base pair split sequence (e.g., Bse4I (BseLI, MsiYI,BslI), MwoI), and enzymes that recognize a six-base pair split sequence(e.g., AccB71 (Esp1396I, PflMI, Van91I), AdeI (DraIII), AhdI (AspEI,Eam1105I, EchHKI, NruGI), AlwNI, ApaBI (BstAPI), AspI (PflFI, Tth111I),BglI, BstXI, DrdI (DseDI), and EcoNI (XagI), XcmI). Additional suitableclass IIS restriction enzymes are known to those of skill in the art(see, for example, Szybalski et al., Gene, 100:13 (1991)).

There are other enzymes that are not class IIS enzymes, which producenon-palindromic ends. Examples of such enzymes include but are notlimited to AvaI (Ama87I, BcoI, BsoBI, Eco88I), AvaII (Eco47I, Bme18I,HgiEI, SinI), BanI (AccB1I, BshNI, Eco64I), BfmI (BstSFI, SfcI), Bpu101,BsaMI (BscCI, BsmI, Mva1269I), Bsh1285I (BsaOI, BsiEI, BstMCI), Bse1I(BseNI, BsrI, Cfr10I), BsiI (BssSI, Bst2BI), BsiZI (AspS9I, Cfr13I,Sau96I), Bsp1720I (BlpI, Bpu1102I, CelII), Bst4CI, BstDEI (DdeI), CpoI(CspI, RsrII), DsaI (BstDSI), Eco24I (BanII, EcoT38I, FriOI, HgiJII),Eco130I (StyI, BssT1I, EcoT14I, ErhI), EspI (BlpI, Bpu1102I, Bsp1720I,CelII), HgiAI (BsiHKAI, Alw21I, AspHI, Bbv12I), HinfI, PspPPI (PpuMI,Psp5II), SanDI, SduI (Bsp1286I, BmyI), SecI (BsaJI, BseDI), SfcI (BfmI,BstSFI), and SmlI.

Other enzymes useful in the invention are those which have fewrecognition sites in DNA, e.g., cDNAs, of one or more organisms (an“infrequent cutter”). To select restriction enzyme sites for thisembodiment of the invention, analyses of sequences for a plurality ofm-RNAs, open reading frames and/or cDNAs from an organism are conducted,e.g., using computer software, to determine the relative frequency ofthose sites in that organism (see FIGS. 3-5). For example, SapI hasnumerous recognition sites in human cDNAs, e.g., 38-43%, while thecombination of SgfI and PmeI, and SfiI, have relatively few recognitionsites in human cDNAs, for instance, 2 to 3%, and 13 to 14%,respectively. Enzymes which may generate ends complementary to Sgflinclude but are not limited to Bce83I (BpuEI), BseMII, BseRI, BsgI,BspCNI, BsrDI (Bse3DI, BseMI), BstF5I (BseGI), BtsI, DrdI (AasI, DseDI),EciI, Eco57I (AcuI, BspKT5I), Eco57MI, GsuI (BpmI), MmeI, TaqII, TspDTI,TspGWI, Tth111II, BspKT6I (BstKTI), PacI, PvuI (Afa22MI, Afa16RI, BspCI,EagBI, ErhB9I, MvrI, NblI, Ple19I, Psu161I, RshI, XorII), and SgfI(AsiSI).

Enzymes which generate blunt ends include but are not limited to AhallI(DraI, PauAII, SruI), AluI (MltI), BalI (MlsI, Mlu31I, MluNI, MscI,Msp20I), BfrBI, BsaAI (BstBAI, MspYI, PsuAI), BsaBI (Bse8I, BseJI,Bsh1365I, BsiBI, BsrBRI, MamI), BsrBI (AccBSI, BstD102I, Bst31NI, MbiI),BtrI (BmgBI), Cac8I (BstC8I), CdiI, CviJI (CviTI), CviRI (HpyCH4VHpyF44III), Eco47III (AfeI, AitI, Aor51HI, FunI), Eco78I (EgeI, EheI,SfoI), EcoICRI (BpuAmI, Ecl136II, Eco53kI, MxaI), EcoRV (CeqI, Eco32I,HjaI, HpyCI, NsiCI), EsaBC3I, FnuDII (AccIl, BceBI, BepI, Bpu95I,Bsh1236I, Bsp50I, Bsp123I, BstFNI, BstUI, Bsu1532I, BtkI, Csp68KVI,CspKVI, FalII, FauBII, MvnI, ThaI), FspAI, HaeI, HaeIII (BanAI, BecAII,Bim19II, Bme361I, BseQI, BshI, BshFI, Bsp211I, BspBRI, BspKI, BspRI,BsuRI, BteI, CltI, DsaII, EsaBC4I, FnuDI, MchAII, MfoAI, NgoPII, NspLKI,PalI, Pde133I, PflKI, PhoI, PlaI, SbvI, SfaI, SuaI), HindII (HinJCI,HincII), HpaI (BstEZ359I, BstHPI, KspAI, SsrI), Hpy8I (HpyBII), LpnI(Bme142I), MlyI (SchI), MslI (SmiMI), MstI (Acc16I, AosI, AviII, FdiII,FspI, NsbI, PamI, Pun14627I), NaeI (CcoI, PdiI, SauBMKI, SauHPI, SauLPI,SauNI, SauSI, Slu1777I, SspCI), NlaIV (AspNI, BscBI, BspLI, PspN4I),NruI (Bsp68I, MluB2I, Sbol3I, SpoI), NspBII (MspA1I), OliI (AleI), PmaCI(AcvI, BbrPI, BcoAI, Eco72I, PmlI), PmeI (MssI), PshAI (BoxI, BstPAI),PsiI, PvuII (BavI, BavAI, BavBI, Bsp153AI, BspM39I, BspO4I, Cfr6I, DmaI,EclI, NmeRI, Pae17kI, Pun14627II, Pvu84II, Uba153AI, UbaM39I), RsaI(AfaI, HpyBI, PlaAII), ScaI (Acc13I, AssI, DpaI, Eco255I, RflFII), SciI,SmaI (CfrJ4I, PaeBI, PspALI), SnaBI (BstSNI, Eco105I), SrfI, SspI,SspD5I, StuI (AatI, AspMI, Eco147I, GdiI, PceI, Pme55I, SarI, Sru30DI,SseBI, SteI), Swal (BstRZ246I, BstSWI, MspSWI, SmiI), XcaI (BspM90I,BssNAI, Bst1107I, BstBSI, BstZ17I), XmnI (Asp700I, BbvAI, MroXI, PdmI),and ZraI.

In one embodiment, the restriction enzyme site in a vector of theinvention is for a restriction enzyme that generates blunt ends andpreferably has relatively few recognition sites in a particularorganism, e.g., PmeI (MssI), NruI (Bsp68I, MluB2I, Sbo13I, SpoI), SnaBI(BstSNI, Eco105I), SrfI, and SwaI (BstRZ246I, BstSWI, MspSWI, SmiI), aswell as HpaI, HincII, PshAI, Oli I, AluI, Alw26I, BalI, DraI, DpnI,EcoR47III, EcoRCRI, EcoRV, FokI, HaeIII, HincII, MboI, MspAII, NaeI,RsaI, PvuII, ScaI, SmaI, SspI, StuI, XmnI, EcaBC3I, SciI, HincII, DraI,BsaBI, Cac8I, Hpy8I, MlyI, PshAI, SspD51, BfrBI, BsaAI, BsrBI, BtrI,CdiI, CviJI, CviRI, Eco47III, Eco78I, EcoICRI, FnuDII, FspAI, HaeI,LpnI, MlyI, MslI, MstI, NaeI, NlaIV, NruI, NspBII, OliI, PmaCI, PshAI,PsiI, SrfI, StuI, XcaI, XmnI, ZraI or an isoschizomer thereof.

II. Methods to Identify Frequencies of Recognition Sites

FIG. 3 is a flowchart of a method 300 for performing a genetic analysisaccording to an embodiment of the invention. The method may be performedby one or more computer programs or modules made up ofcomputer-executable instructions. Describing the method by reference toa flowchart enables one skilled in the art to develop such programs ormodules including such instructions to carry out the method on suitablecomputers (the processor or processors of the computer executing theinstructions from computer-readable media such as RAM, ROM, CD-ROM,DVD-ROM, hard-drives, floppy drives and other such media). The methodillustrated in FIG. 3 is inclusive of acts that may be taken by anoperating environment executing an exemplary embodiment of theinvention.

A system executing the method begins by populating a database withgenetic records obtained from a source database (block 302). Populatinga database may be performed using some manual manipulations. In someembodiments, the genetic records comprise gene sequences having openreading frames, e.g., from cDNAs, or a portion thereof. In someembodiments, the database is populated using genetic records that may beobtained from publicly available source databases. For example, in someembodiments human genetic data may be obtained through the Internetusing the URL (Uniform Resource Locator)

-   -   “ftp.ncbi.nih.gov/refseq/H_sapiens/mRNA_Prot/hs_fna.gz” or the        URL mgc.nci.nih.gov/. Genetic data for baker's yeast may be        obtained using the URL        “genome-ftp.stanford.edu/pub/yeast/data_download/sequence/genomic_sequence/orf_dna.”

Genetic data for E. coli may be obtained from the URL

-   -   “www.genome.wisc.edu/sequencing/k12.htm.” Genetic data for C.        elegans may be obtained using the URL    -   “ftp.wormbase.org/pub/wormbase/confirmed_genes_current.gz”.        Genetic data for Arabidopsis may be obtained using the URL        “tairpub:tairpub@ftp.arabidopsis.org/home/tair/Sequences/blast_datasets/file=ATH        1.cds.” It should be noted that no embodiment of the invention        is limited to any particular source for the genetic data, and        that many publicly and privately available sources may be        utilized. In one embodiment, the genetic records represent at        least 10% or more, e.g., 25%, 50% or more, of the open reading        frames in the genome of a selected organism.

The data format for the source data may be different from the formatdesired for the genetic database. In some embodiments, the source datais converted to a common format for storage in the genetic database.

A query is issued to search for a subset of records in the geneticdatabase that have at least one recognition site for a predeterminedrestriction enzyme or for a set of predetermined restriction enzymes(block 304). In one embodiment, one or more predetermined restrictionenzymes have a 6, 7 or 8 bp recognition site, e.g., a set may include apredetermined restriction enzyme with a 7 bp recognition site andanother with a 8 bp recognition site. However, the present invention isnot limited to any particular number of restriction enzymes included inthe set or to a particular number of bp in the recognition site for theone or set of predetermined restriction enzymes. The resulting subset ofrecords may be stored in a temporary table, in a separate results table,or in a separate database.

In some embodiments, the resulting subset of genetic records is filteredto exclude records that may lead to erroneous, skewed, or non-usefulresults (block 306) or include records with selected characteristics.For example, it has been found that very long sequences in excess of21,000 bp, a size likely to represent one of the largest open readingframes, typically lead to erroneous, skewed or non-useful results. Otherfiltering characteristics may also be used and are within the scope ofthe present invention. Examples of such filtering characteristicsinclude filtering for (to exclude or include) a certain GC content, thepresence or absence of introns, specific amino acid compositions in thepredicted translation product of the open reading frames, similarity toknown genes in specific gene families, a particular isoelectric point ofpredicted protein products of the open reading frames, and/or predictedmembrane spanning proteins in the open reading frames. It should benoted that filtering may occur at any point in the method. For example,the records may be filtered prior to populating the genetic database, oras part of the query to create the subset of records at block 2204.

Next, a set of one or more statistics may be obtained by issuing one ormore queries on the subset of records having at least one restrictionenzyme recognition site (block 308). In some embodiments, the queriescomprise pattern matching queries. The pattern may be specified in anyof a number of ways known in the art. For example, wildcard charactersmay be used to specify one or more positions in the pattern, or regularexpressions may be used to specify the pattern. The present invention isnot limited to any particular form for specifying a pattern.Additionally, the pattern may be submitted as part of a query to adatabase engine, or the pattern matching may be executed by a programsuch as a Visual Basic program on records obtained by a query.

In some embodiments, the number of records having particular restrictionenzyme recognition sites is determined and reported (block 310). In someembodiments, in order to be included in the statistics, each recordcontains recognition sites for all of a predetermined set of restrictionenzymes in order to be analyzed.

In alternative embodiments, the number of restriction enzyme targetsites occurring in a record is determined and reported (block 312). Insome of these alternative embodiments, the record contains recognitionsites for all of a predetermined set of restriction enzymes in order tobe analyzed.

In further alternative embodiments, statistics regarding the bases atambiguous positions recognized or cleaved by hapaxomeric restrictionenzymes are determined and reported (block 314). The statistics aredesirable for determining the distribution of bases in the ambiguouspositions of those restriction enzymes. Two examples of such ambiguityare the presence of N's in sites recognized or cleaved by SfiI and SapIas illustrated in FIG. 1. In these alternative embodiments, the identityof any ambiguous bases in the recognition site(s) or bases between therecognition site(s) and the actual cleavage site(s) of some or all ofthe predetermined restriction enzymes are determined and reported alongwith one or more statistics on the identity of these bases.

FIGS. 4-5 provide the frequency for various restriction enzymerecognition sites in a variety of organisms determined by the methoddescribed herein.

III. Vectors of the Invention

Donor or recipient vectors are used to transfer a DNA sequence ofinterest, e.g., one in a library, e.g., in a cDNA library, in anothervector, e.g., an expression vector, or one obtained from an isolatedfragment, e.g., a PCR fragment, which DNA sequence of interest isflanked by desirable restriction enzyme recognition sites, to anothervector (an acceptor vector) to generate a recipient (expression) vector,e.g., one useful for expression of the DNA sequence of interest. Thepresence and position of desirable restriction enzyme recognition sitesin the acceptor vector and those flanking the DNA sequence of interestpermits the rapid subcloning or insertion of the DNA sequence ofinterest into the acceptor vector in an oriented manner.

The acceptor vector may include sequences 5′ and/or 3′ to the desirablerestriction enzyme recognition sites which encode a peptide orpolypeptide (fusion partner), which sequences, when operably linked tothe DNA sequence of interest and expressed in a cell, cell lysate or invitro transcription/translation system, yield a fusion protein. Such apeptide or polypeptide may be located at either the N— or C-terminus ofthe fusion protein. Alternatively, the fusion protein may contain apeptide or polypeptide at both the N— and C-terminus, and each peptideor polypeptide may be different. Alternatively, the DNA sequence ofinterest may itself encode a fusion protein and, once combined with theacceptor vector, result in a recipient vector which encodes arecombinant polypeptide which includes one or more additional residuesat the N-terminus, C-terminus, or both the N— and C-termini, whichresidues are encoded by sequences in the acceptor vector, e.g., thoseencoded by sequences 5′ and/or 3′ to the desirable restriction enzymerecognition sites. Moreover, one or more amino acid residues may beencoded by the exchange sites generated by the ligation of the ends ofthe DNA sequence of interest and the acceptor vector.

In one embodiment, the peptide or polypeptide fusion partner is anepitope tag, affinity domain, e.g., a protease recognition site, orenzyme, e.g., thioredoxin or dehalogenase. An epitope tag is a shortpeptide sequence that is recognized by epitope specific antibodies. Afusion protein comprising an epitope tag can be simply and easilypurified using an antibody bound to a chromatography resin. The presenceof the epitope tag further allows the recombinant protein to be detectedin subsequent assays, such as Western blots, without having to producean antibody specific for the recombinant protein itself. Examples ofcommonly used epitope tags include V5, glutathione-S-transferase (GST),hemaglutinin (HA), FLAG, c-myc, RYIRS, calmodulin binding domain, thepeptide Phe-His-His-Thr-Thr, chitin binding domain, and the like.

Affinity domains are generally peptide sequences that can interact witha binding partner, such as one immobilized on a solid support. DNAsequences encoding metal ion affinity sequences, such as those withmultiple consecutive single amino acids, e.g., histidine, when fused tothe expressed protein, may be used for one-step purification of therecombinant protein by high affinity binding to a resin column, such asnickel sepharose. An endopeptidase recognition sequence can beengineered between the polyamino acid tag and the protein of interest toallow subsequent removal of the leader peptide by digestion withenterokinase, and other proteases. Sequences encoding peptides orproteins, such as the chitin binding domain (which binds to chitin), GST(which binds to glutathione), biotin (which binds to avidin andstrepavidin), maltose binding protein (MBP), a portion of staphylococcalprotein A (SPA), a polyhistidine tract (HIS,), and the like, can also beused for facilitating purification of the protein of interest. Theaffinity domain can be separated from the protein of interest by methodswell known in the art, including the use of inteins (proteinself-splicing elements, Chong et al., Gene, 192:271 (1997). In oneembodiment, sequences for more than one fusion partner can be linked tosequences for a peptide or polypeptide of interest, e.g., an affinitydomain is linked to a protease cleavage recognition site which is linkedto a polypeptide of interest.

To prepare expression vectors intended to generate defined fusions atthe 5′ end of an open reading frame (e.g., the acceptor vector does notcontain sequences 5′ of the exchange site that encode a peptide orprotein for fusion), a desired restriction enzyme recognition site isplaced at the desired start of transcription in the vector. Care istaken to avoid introducing an ATG or start codon upstream of theexchange site that might initiate translation inappropriately. Forinstance, fusion of an overhang generated by SgfI digestion of anacceptor vector with a compatible overhang which is 5′ to a start codonfor an open reading frame in a DNA fragment can yield a recombinantvector containing a de novo start site for that open reading frame.Sequences from the acceptor vector which are present in the recombinantvector include sequences 5′ to the overhang generated by SgtI digestion,which optionally include a suitably positioned RBS. Optionally,sequences at the 5′ end of the open reading frame include a Kozaksequence or a portion thereof which, when present in mRNA, is capable ofbinding the small subunit of a eukaryotic ribosome.

To prepare expression vectors intended to generate a fusion protein byfusing a vector encoded peptide or protein located at the N-terminus ofa fusion protein to a DNA sequence of interest (i.e., a translationalfusion), the restriction enzyme recognition site is positioned in thecorrect reading frame such that 1) an open reading frame is maintainedthrough the restriction enzyme recognition site on the acceptor vectorand 2) the reading frame in the restriction enzyme recognition site onthe acceptor vector is in frame with the reading frame found on therestriction enzyme recognition site contained within the donor vector.In addition, the appropriate restriction enzyme recognition site on theacceptor vector is designed to avoid the introduction of in-frame stopcodons. The DNA sequence of interest contained within the donor vectoris thus cloned in a particular reading frame in the acceptor vector soas to facilitate the creation of the desired N-terminal fusion protein.For example, fusion of SgfI sites at the 5′ end of a DNA sequence ofinterest and 3′ end of the acceptor vector can provide read throughsequences.

Similarly, to prepare expression vectors intended to generate a fusionprotein by fusing a vector encoded peptide or protein located at theC-terminus of a fusion protein and a DNA sequence of interest, therestriction enzyme recognition site is positioned in the correct readingframe such that 1) an open reading frame is maintained through therestriction enzyme recognition site on the acceptor vector and 2) thereading frame in the restriction enzyme recognition site on the acceptorvector is in frame with the reading frame found on the restrictionenzyme recognition site contained within the donor vector, i.e., a sitewhich flanks the DNA sequence of interest at the 3′ end. The DNAsequence of interest contained within the donor vector can thus becloned in a particular reading frame so as to facilitate the creation ofthe desired C-terminal fusion protein. For instance, fusion of a PmeIsite with a EcoRV or BalI site can yield a C-terminal fusion with atleast 2 amino acids added at the C-terminus, while fusion of two PmeIsites or a PmeI site and a Dral site can yield a C-terminal fusion witha single amino acid added at the C-terminus.

In one embodiment, the expression vector encodes a protein with multiplefusion partners, e.g., an affinity tag for purification and a proteasecleavage site fused to a protein of interest.

Use of the cloning system herein makes it possible to bring the proteinsequence to be expressed in close proximity to the N-terminal and/orC-terminal fusion partner. A particular advantage is that it is possibleto select the reading frame. This makes it possible not only to exactlyposition the DNA sequence of interest but also to define the ends of thefusion gene.

The vectors employed in the practice of the invention also contain oneor more nucleic acid sequences that generally have some function in thereplication, maintenance or integrity of the vector, e.g., origins ofreplication, as well as one or more selectable marker genes. Replicationorigins are unique DNA segments that contain multiple short repeatedsequences that are recognized by multimeric origin-binding proteins andwhich play a key role in assembling DNA replication enzymes at theorigin site. Suitable origins of replication for use in expressionvectors employed herein include E. coli oriC, colE1 plasmid origin, 2μand ARS (both useful in yeast systems), sf1, SV40 EBV oriP (useful inmammalian systems), p15 or those found in pSC101 and the like.

Selection marker sequences are valuable elements in vectors as theyprovide a means to select for or against growth of cells which have beensuccessfully transformed with a vector containing the selection markersequence and express the marker. Such markers are generally of twotypes: drug resistance and auxotrophic. A drug resistance marker enablescells to detoxify an exogenously added drug that would otherwise killthe cell. An auxotrophic marker allows cells to synthesize an essentialcomponent (usually an amino acid) while grown in media which lacks thatessential component.

A wide variety of selectable marker genes are available (see, forexample, Kaufman, Meth. Enzymol., 185:487 (1990); Kaufman, Meth.Enzymol., 185:537 (1990); Srivastava and Schlessinger, Gene, 103:53(1991); Romanos et al., in DNA Cloning 2: Expression Systems, 2.sup.ndEdition, pages 123-167 (IRL Press 1995); Markie, Methods Mol. Biol.,54:359 (1996); Pfeifer et al., Gene, 188:183 (1997); Tucker and Burke,Gene, 199:25 (1997); Hashida-Okado et al., FEBS Letters, 425:117(1998)). Common selectable marker gene sequences include those forresistance to antibiotics such as ampicillin, tetracycline, kanamycin,bleomycin, streptomycin, hygromycin, neomycin, Zeocin™, and the like.Selectable auxotrophic gene sequences include, for example, hisD, whichallows growth in histidine free media in the presence of histidinol.

Suitable selectable marker genes include a bleomycin-resistance gene, ametallothionein gene, a hygromycin B-phosphotransferase gene, the AURIgene, an adenosine deaminase gene, an aminoglycoside phosphotransferasegene, a dihydrofolate reductase gene, a thymidine kinase gene, axanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase gene, and the like.

An alternate approach is to use a selectable marker gene that encodes amutated enzyme that is less active than the corresponding wild-typeenzyme. As an illustration, Munir et al., Protein Eng., 7:83 (1994),describe the design of mutant thymidine kinase enzymes with decreasedactivity (also see Liu and Summers, Virology, 163:638 (1988); Mendel etal., Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 39:2120 (1995)). Low activitymutants have also been described for adenosine deaminase anddihydrofolate reductase (see, for example, Prendergast et al.,Biochemistry, 27:3664 (1988); Jiang et al., Hum. Mol. Genet., 6:2271(1997); Ercikan-Abali et al., Mol. Pharmacol., 49:430 (1996)).

Another type of marker gene is a gene that produces a readily detectableprotein, such as green fluorescent protein, red fluorescent protein, anenzyme (e.g., placental alkaline phosphatase, beta-galactosidase,beta-lactamase, or luciferase), or a cell surface protein that can bedetected with an antibody (e.g. CD4, CD8, Class I majorhistocompatibility complex (MHC) protein, etc.). The expression productsof such selectable marker genes can be used to sort transfected cellsfrom untransfected cells by such standard means, e.g., FACS sorting ormagnetic bead separation technology.

Metallothionein genes encode proteins that have a high affinity fortoxic metals, such as cadmium, zinc, and copper (Beach and Pahniter,Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci. USA, 78:2110 (1981); Huang et al., EXS, 52:439(1987); Czaja et al., J. Cell. Physiol., 147:434 (1991)). Accordingly,metallothionein genes provide suitable titratable markers for themethods described herein.

In one embodiment, the acceptor vector includes a counterselectable geneflanked by desirable restriction enzyme sites. Preferred genes in thisregard include but are not limited to lethal genes, such as those whichare inducible with low to no constitutive activity (and preferably withsome immunity factor), e.g., genes such as bar (barstar), those encodinga restriction enzyme (a gene encoding a corresponding methylase), orthose encoding nuclease colicins, e.g., E9 DNAse, and colicin RNases andtRNases, or gyrase A, as well as MazF(ChpAK), Doc (Phd), ParE, PasB,StbOrj2, HigB, z, RelE, Txe, YeoB, SacB, KilA, KorA, KorB, Kid (Kis),PemK (PemI), Hok (Sok), Dcc (Pno), CcdB (CcdA), F′ plasmid, and thelike.

Other selection approaches include the use of regulated transcriptionalmodulators, e.g., a tertracycline inducible or repressible system (see,for instance, WO 96/01313).

The acceptor vectors employed in the practice of the invention alsocontain one or more nucleic acid sequences that have some function inthe expression of a protein, i.e., transcriptional regulatory sequences,for instance, inducible or repressible control sequences such aspromoter or enhancer sequences.

Promoter-enhancer sequences are DNA sequences to which RNA polymerasebinds and initiates transcription. The promoter determines the polarityof the transcript by specifying which strand will be transcribed.Bacterial promoters consist of consensus sequences, −35 and −10nucleotides relative to the transcriptional start, which are bound by aspecific sigma factor and RNA polymerase. Eukaryotic promoters are morecomplex. Most promoters utilized in vectors are transcribed by RNApolymerase II. General transcription factors (GTFs) first bind specificsequences near the start and then recruit the binding of RNA polymeraseII. In addition to these minimal promoter elements, small sequenceelements are recognized specifically by modularDNA-binding/trans-activating proteins (e.g., AP-1, SP-1) that regulatethe activity of a given promoter. Viral promoters serve the samefunction as bacterial or eukaryotic promoters and either provide aspecific RNA polymerase in trans (bacteriophage T7) or recruit cellularfactors and RNA polymerase (SV40, RSV, CMV). Viral promoters may bepreferred as they are generally particularly strong promoters.

Promoters may be, furthermore, either constitutive or regulatable (i.e.,inducible or derepressible). Inducible elements are DNA sequenceelements which act in conjunction with promoters and bind eitherrepressors (e.g., lacO/LAC Iq repressor system in E. coli) or inducers(e.g., Gal1/GAL4 inducer system in yeast rhaBAD/rhamnose in E. coli). Ineither case, transcription is virtually “shut off” until the promoter isderepressed or induced, at which point transcription is “turned-on”.

Examples of constitutive promoters include the int promoter ofbacteriophage λ, the bla promoter of the β-lactamase gene sequence ofpBR322, the CAT promoter of the chloramphenicol acetyl transferase genesequence of pPR325, and the like. Examples of inducible prokaryoticpromoters include the major right and left promoters of bacteriophage(P_(L) and P_(R)), the trp, reca, lacZ, lacI, araC and gal promoters ofE. coli, the α-amylase (Ulmanen et al., J. Bacteriol., 162:176 (1985),the araBAD promoter, the rhaBAD promoter, and the sigma-28-specificpromoters of B. subtilis (Gilman et al., Gene Sequence, 32:11 (1984),the promoters of the bacteriophages of Bacillus (Gryczan, In: TheMolecular Biology of the Bacilli, Academic Press, Inc., NY, 1982),Streptomyces promoters (Ward et at., Mol. Gen. Genet. 203:468 (1986),Pichia promoters (U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,855,231 and 4,808,537), and the like.Exemplary prokaryotic promoters are reviewed by Glick (J. Ind.Microbiol., 1:277 (1987); Cenatiempo (Biochimie, 68:505 (1986); andGottesman (Ann. Rev. Genet., 18:415 (1984). In one embodiment, thepromoter is a T7 promoter or a SP6 promoter.

Preferred eukaryotic promoters include, for example, the promoter of themouse metallothionein I gene sequence (Hamer et al., J. Mol. Appl. Gen.,1:273 (1982); the TK promoter of Herpes virus (McKnight, Cell, 31:355(1982); the SV40 early promoter (Benoist et al., Nature (London),290:304 (1981); the yeast Gall gene sequence promoter (Johnston et al.,Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA), 79:6971 (1982); Silver et al., Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. (USA), 81:5951 (1984), a baculovirus promoter, the CMVpromoter, the EF-1 promoter, Ecdysone-responsive promoter(s),tetracycline-responsive promoter, and the like.

Suitable prokaryotic vectors include plasmids such as those capable ofreplication in E. coli (for example, pBR322, ColE1, pSC101, PACYC 184,itVX, pRSET, pBAD (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.), and the like). Suchplasmids are disclosed by Sambrook (cf. Molecular Cloning: A LaboratoryManual, second edition, edited by Sambrook, Fritsch, & Maniatis, ColdSpring Harbor Laboratory, 1989). Bacillus plasmids include pC194, pC221,pT127, and the like, and are disclosed by Gryczan (In: The MolecularBiology of the Bacilli, supra, pp. 307-329). Suitable Streptomycesplasmids include plJ101 (Kendall et al., J. Bacteriol., 169:4177 (1987),and streptomyces bacteriophages such as .phi.C31 (Chater et al., In:Sixth International Symposium on Actinomycetales Biology, AkademiaiKaido, Budapest, Hungary, pp. 45-54, 1986). Pseudomonas plasmids arereviewed by John et al. (Rev. Infect. Dis., 8:693 (1986), and Izaki(Jpn. J. Bacteriol., 33:729 (1978). In one embodiment, the vectorbackbone for an acceptor vector for expression of linked sequences in E.coli includes an amp^(R) gene, T7 transcriptional regulatory elements,and sequences for producing a fusion protein such as a GST, thioredoxinor dehalogenase fusion with a protein of interest.

Suitable eukaryotic plasmids include, for example, BPV, EBV, vaccinia,SV40, 2-micron circle, pCI-neo, pcDNA3.1, pcDNA3.1/GS, pYES2/GS, pMT,pIND, pIND(Sp1), pVgRXR (Invitrogen), and the like, or theirderivatives. Such plasmids are well known in the art (Botstein et al.,Miami Wntr. Symp., 19:265 (1982); Broach, In: The Molecular Biology ofthe Yeast Saccharomyces: Life Cycle and Inheritance, Cold Spring, HarborLaboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. pp. 445-470, 1981; Broach, Cell,28:203 (1982); Dilon et al., J. Clin. Hematol. Oncol., 10:39 (1980);Maniatis, In: Cell Biology: A Comprehensive Treatise, Vol. 3, GeneSequence Expression, Academic Press, NY, pp. 563-608, 1980. In oneembodiment, the vector backbone for an acceptor vector for expression oflinked sequences in mammalian cells or an in vitro eukaryotictranscription/translation reaction is pCMVTnT (Promega Corp.), andsequences for producing a fusion protein such as a GST or dehalogenasefusion with a protein of interest.

Promoters/plasmid combinations are employed with suitable host cells,e.g., prokaryotic cells, such as E. coli, Streptomyces, Pseudomonas andBacillus, or eukaryotic cells, such as yeast, e.g., Picchia,Saccharomyces or Schizosaccharomyces, insect cells, avian cells, plantcells, or mammalian cells, e.g., human, simian, parcine, ovine, rodent,bovine, equine, caprine, canine or feline cells, as well as lysatesthereof, e.g., TNT, wheat germ lysates or S30 lysates.

In one embodiment, the host cell is a recombinant cell, e.g., arecombinant prokaryotic cell. In one embodiment, the recombinant hostcell is deficient in one or more genes in an inducible pathway, e.g., asugar pathway such as the rhamnose catabolic pathway, and comprises arecombinant DNA comprising an inducible promoter for the one or moregenes operably linked to an open reading frame for a heterologous RNApolymerase. The recombinant host cell or a lysate there, or an in vitrotranscription/translation mixture supplemented with the heterologous RNApolymerase, is contacted with a vector of the invention comprising apromoter for the heterologous RNA polymerase operably linked to a DNAsequence of interest. In one embodiment, the recombinant host cell is arecombinant E. coli cell that is deficient in rhamnose catabolism andcomprises a rhaBAD promoter operably linked to a T7 RNA polymerase openreading frame. In the absence of rhamnose, such a cell has no or lowlevels of T7 RNA polymerase and so is particularly useful to clone toxicgenes.

In another embodiment, the recombinant host cell expresses an immunityfactor for a gene product that is lethal to the cell. The immunityfactor is preferably expressed from a constitutive promoter. Anexpression vector encoding the lethal gene product may be introduced tothe recombinant cell and the transformed cell propagated. In oneembodiment the gene product is barnase which has been modified bydeleting sequences for the secretory segment (signal peptide) andoptionally adding a ATG in place of the last codon for the secretorysequence.

IV. Use of DNA Binding Proteins to Protect Restriction Enzyme Sites

In the process of introducing a DNA sequence of interest to a donorvector, or from a donor vector to an acceptor vector, restriction enzymesites which flank the DNA sequence of interest, i.e., those useful incloning, may also be present in either the DNA sequence of interest orvector sequences. To protect sites containing a particular restrictionenzyme site from cleavage by the corresponding enzyme, DNA bindingproteins and methylation may be employed. For instance, the process ofprotecting a restriction site with RecA (RecA cleavage and production)is more reproducible, provides better yields and is less cumbersome thanpartial restriction digests. Other means of protecting a restrictionsite include using repressor proteins, eukaryotic transcription factors,E. coli host integration factor or oligonucleotides capable of forming atriple helix structure, however, the specificity of protection usingRecA is entirely from the synthetic single-stranded DNA. In the presenceof a nonhydrolyzable ATP analog such as ATP[gamma-S], the RecA proteinnonspecifically binds to single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) (approximately oneRecA monomer per three nucleotides) to form a structure called apresynaptic filament. This RecA-coated oligonucleotide then anneals withhomologous duplex DNA to form a stable triplex DNA-protein complex. Thepresynaptic filament represents a useful molecular research tool inthat: i) the sequence and length of the ssDNA added to the reactiondetermines the site and span of the presynaptic filament and ii) thepresynaptic filament protects the DNA at the hybridization site frommodification by DNA methylases and restriction enzymes. These featuresenable RecA protein-mediated DNA complexes to add a new level ofspecificity to molecular biology applications that require DNA cleavageat predetermined sites, such as genomic mapping and the subcloning ofDNA fragments. Compared to PCR methods, the use of a DNA binding proteinis quicker and does not introduce mutations arising from multiple cyclesof in vitro amplification.

The general protocols include protecting a restriction site frommethylation, making it unique for restriction enzyme cleavage (RecAcleavage), and protecting a restriction site from digestion (RecAprotection). The RecA cleavage protocol is based on the RecA Achilles'cleavage procedure of Koob et al. (Science, 241, 1084 (1988)), Koob etal. (Gene, 74, 165 (1988)), and Koob et al. (Nucle. Acids Res., 20, 5831(1992)). Additionally, RecA cleavage is useful for generatingrestriction fragments for subdloning when the desired restriction siteis repeated several times within the fragment. However, if only one ortwo restriction sites are repeated within the desired fragment, RecAprotection is preferred. Based on fluorometric analysis of the RecAproducts after electrophoresis, these two protocols routinely resultedin 70% to 80% protection when a single site was protected. Thistechnique also can be used for DNA embedded in agarose plugs. TABLE 3Oligonucleotides: Prepared by user Methylase: In theory, any to bespecific for the intended restriction enzyme/methylase pair protectedsite. Diluted to 160 ng/μl. could be used. In these protocols, 35μ/μl ofEcoRI methylase was used. RecA: 1-3 mg/ml Restriction enzyme: In theseprotocols, 12μ/μl EcoRI was used. SAM: 1.6 mM S-adenosyl Buffer A: 250mM Tris-acetate methionine. Prepared immediately (pH 7.5 at 25° C.), 1mM before use from a 32 mM stock by magnesium acetate. dilution withice-cold 5 mM sulfuric acid. ATP [gamma-S]: Aliquots of a 10 Buffer B:166 mM Tris-acetate mM solution (in water) are stored at (pH 7.5 at 25°C.), 37 mM −70° C. magnesium acetate, 100 mM DTT. 80 mM magnesiumacetate. 250 mM potassium acetate. Restriction Enzyme Buffer H (Promega)A. RecA Cleavage or Protection ReactionsThe RecA Concentration

To maximize the specificity and efficiency of RecA protection, it may benecessary to manipulate the oligonucleotide:RecA ratio: a concentrationof 6.25 μg RecA in a 10 μl reaction works well.

The Oligonucleotide Concentration

The molar stoichiometry (in terms of moles of nucleotides to moles ofRecA protein) of the binding of the oligonucleotide to RecA is 3:1. Inother words, one RecA protein binds every three nucleotides of anysingle-stranded DNA. This ratio is independent of oligonucleotide sizeand corresponds to 160 ng of oligonucleotide per 6.25 μg RecA. Atitration series of 40-280 ng in 40 ng increments is useful to determinethe optimal concentration of oligonucleotide to use with the RecA. Ifnonspecific protection is a problem, then 160 ng of oligo(dT) can beadded to the reaction after the addition of ATP[gamma-S].

Design of Oligonucleotide

An oligonucleotide of 30 to 36 bases in length is recommended for bothRecA cleavage and RecA protection in solution. The protected site waslocated in the middle of the 30 base oligonucleotide used throughout thedevelopment of this protocol (see also RecA Cleavage and Protection forGenomic Mapping and Subcloning, from Promega Notes Magazine #50).

Buffer

It may be necessary to adjust the salt concentration to improve theactivity of the enzyme after methylation. Acetate salts appear to beless destabilizing to the RecA triplex than chloride salts, and thuspotassium acetate rather than potassium or sodium chloride may beemployed.

Subcloning the Products of RecA Cleavage

Because the products of a RecA cleavage reaction are methylated, lowtransformation frequencies may arise from incompatibilities with thehost's restriction/modification system. If transformation efficienciesare low, compare the genotype of the host to the knownmethylation-induced restriction systems to determine if this is thecause.

IV. Exemplary Vector Systems

In one embodiment, at least one of the restriction enzyme sites in thedonor vector and/or flanking the DNA sequence of interest is for arestriction enzyme with a degenerate recognition sequence, e.g., SfiI isa restriction enzyme with a degenerate recognition sequence thatrecognizes an interrupted palindromic sequence (FIG. 6). To employrestriction enzymes that recognize an interrupted palindromic sequenceand generate single-strand DNA overhangs for use in directional cloning,at least two unique sites for that restriction enzyme and/or uniquesite(s) for a different restriction enzyme that generates non-selfcomplementary single-strand DNA overhangs that are complementary withthe overhangs generated by the first restriction enzyme are employed.Other methods may be used to enhance the frequency of desired vectors,e.g., the use of methylation, and/or selectable and counterselectablegenes.

FIG. 7 shows a schematic of the use of donor and acceptor vectors havingrestriction enzyme sites for a restriction enzyme which recognizes aninterrupted palindome (enzyme I; the unique sequences are indicated by Aand B, their complements by A′ and B′, respectively, and the palindromicsequences by boxes). The donor vector has a drug resistance gene 1 and aDNA sequence of interest (light grey box) flanked by one or morerestriction enzyme sites for the restriction enzyme which recognizes aninterrupted palindome. The acceptor vector has a different drugresistance gene (drug resistance gene 2) and, after digestion with arestriction enzyme with a degenerate recognition sequence, has non-selfcomplementary single-strand DNA overhangs A′ and B′ which are,respectively, complementary with the non-self complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs present after digestion of the donor vectorwith enzyme I. Thus, after digestion of the donor vector with enzyme Iand in the presence of the linearized acceptor vector and ligase, thelinearized DNA sequence of interest is joined in an oriented manner tothe acceptor vector, to yield a recipient vector. In FIG. 7A, one halfsite of the restriction site for enzyme I is present at each end of theDNA sequence of interest in the recipient vector. If the ligationregenerates the restriction site, then there is a competing backreaction (FIG. 7B). In FIG. 7C, a counterselectable gene (a lethal gene)is employed in the acceptor vector so that cells with the recipientvector rather than the acceptor vector can be readily identified.

FIG. 8 shows one method by which a DNA sequence of interest is modifiedto contain restriction enzyme sites for a restriction enzyme with adegenerate recognition sequence. Oligonucleotides having uniquedegenerate sequences for the restriction enzyme at the 5′ end, andsequences complementary to one of the strands of the DNA sequence ofinterest at the 3′ end, are employed in an amplification reaction. Thoseunique sequences are also present in a vector containing a drugresistance gene. The amplified fragment and the vector are digested withthe restriction enzyme and ligase added to yield a donor vector of theinvention. If the sites are recognized by restriction enzymes which aresensitive to the methylation state of DNA, e.g., at Dcm sites or using amethylase for SfiI, methylation may minimize the back reaction. Thedonor vector is then digested with a restriction enzyme(s) havingdegenerate recognition sequences and which releases the DNA sequence ofinterest, and mixed with an acceptor vector having complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs generated by, for example, a differentenzyme with a degenerate recognition sequence that generates non-selfcomplementary single-strand DNA overhangs.

FIGS. 9A-B show another approach to preparing a donor vector of theinvention. A DNA sequence of interest is modified to contain restrictionenzyme sites for a restriction enzyme with a degenerate recognitionsequence. Oligonucleotides having unique degenerate sequences for therestriction enzyme at the 5′ end, and sequences complementary to one ofthe strands of the DNA sequence of interest at the 3′ end, are employedin an amplification reaction. The DNA sequence of interest may includeinternal sites for that restriction enzyme. To protect those internalsites from digestion, they are methylated, while the flanking sites atthe ends of the amplified fragment remain unmethylated and thereforesensitive to digestion. To accomplish this, oligonucleotidescomplementary to the sites which are to remain unmethylated and a DNAbinding protein such as RecA are added to the amplified fragment. Theinternal sites are then methylated with an appropriate methylase. Acolumn may be employed to remove the oligonucleotide-DNA binding proteincomplexes from the amplified fragment. The sites which were added to theends of the DNA sequence of interest, once digested, yield non-selfcomplementary single-strand DNA overhangs. Complementary overhangs maybe generated in a vector by digestion with a selected restriction enzymewith degenerate recognition sites, which enzyme may be different thanthe enzyme employed to digest the amplified fragment. The amplifiedfragment and the vector are then digested with the one or morerestriction enzymes, and the resulting linear fragments ligated to forma donor vector containing a drug resistance gene and the DNA sequence ofinterest flanked by sites generated by the joining of the complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs, which sites are recognized by one or morerestriction enzymes with a degenerate recognition sequence, e.g., theenzyme employed to digest the amplified fragment.

FIGS. 10A-B illustrate an approach to prepare a recipient vector of theinvention. In this embodiment, a donor vector comprises a drugresistance gene and a DNA sequence of interest flanked by restrictionenzyme sites for an enzyme with a degenerate recognition sequence andcontaining one or more of those sites internally. To protect thoseinternal sites from digestion, they are methylated. To ensure that theflanking sites remain unmethylated and thus sensitive to digestion,oligonucleotides complementary to the sites which are to remainunmethylated and a DNA binding protein are added to a donor vector. Thesite(s) for the restriction enzyme which are not bound by theoligonucleotide/DNA binding protein is/are then methylated with anappropriate methylase. A column may be employed to remove theoligonucleotide-DNA binding protein complexes from the donor vector. Thedonor vector is then added to an acceptor vector having at least tworecognition sites for a restriction enzyme with a degenerate recognitionsequence, which restriction enzyme produces non-self complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs which are complementary to the overhangsgenerated by digestion of the donor vector with a restriction enzymethat cleaves the unmethylated sites. The acceptor vector preferablycomprises a drug resistance gene which is different than the drugresistance gene in the donor vector. In one embodiment, the restrictionenzyme used to digest the acceptor vector may be different than therestriction enzyme employed to digest the donor vector. Subsequentligation of the linearized DNA fragments obtained by digestion of thedonor and acceptor vectors yields a recipient vector.

In one embodiment, the restriction enzyme used to linearize the donorvector and the acceptor vector are the same, for instance, the donorvector has unique SfiI sites flanking the DNA sequence of interest,which sites, once digested with SfiI, yield non-self complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs that are complementary with thesingle-strand DNA overhangs generated after digestion of the acceptorvector with SfiI. In another embodiment, the donor vector has uniqueBglI sites flanking the DNA sequence of interest which sites, oncedigested with BglI, yield non-self complementary single-strand DNAoverhangs that are complementary with the single-strand DNA overhangsgenerated after digestion of the acceptor vector with BglI. In anotherembodiment, the restriction enzyme with a degenerate recognitionsequence used to linearize the donor vector and the acceptor vector isdifferent, for instance, the donor vector has unique SfiI sites flankingthe DNA sequence of interest which sites, once digested with SfiI, yieldnon-self complementary single-strand DNA overhangs that arecomplementary with the single-strand DNA overhangs generated afterdigestion of the acceptor vector with BglI. Restriction enzymes usefulwith SfiI in preparing donor and acceptor vectors are shown in FIG. 11.Methylases for SfiI and/or BglI may be obtained by well-known methods,see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,179,015, 5,200,333, and 5,320,957. Forinstance, the preparation of recombinant BglI and its correspondingmethylase is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,366,882. The preparation ofrecombinant SfiI and a corresponding methylase is provided in U.S.Patent No. 5,637,476. Other methylases useful with vectors containingSfiI recognition sites include the methylase for HaeIII and Dcmmethylase.

In another embodiment, at least one of the restriction enzyme sites inthe donor vector and/or flanking the DNA sequence of interest is a sitefor a type IIS enzyme, e.g., SapI. FIG. 12 illustrates the preparationof a recipient vector of the invention from a donor vector and anacceptor vector using vectors with recognition sites for type IISrestriction enzymes. To employ sites for type IIS restriction enzymes indirectional cloning, at least two unique sites for that restrictionenzyme and/or unique site(s) for a different restriction enzyme thatgenerates non-self complementary single-strand DNA overhangs that arecomplementary with the overhangs generated by the first restrictionenzyme are selected. Methylation may be employed to increase thefrequency of desired vectors, as well as the use of selectable andcounterselectable genes.

In one embodiment, the restriction enzyme used to linearize the donorvector and the acceptor vector are the same, for instance, the donorvector has unique SapI sites flanking the DNA sequence of interest,which sites, once digested with SapI, yield non-self complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs that are complementary with thesingle-strand DNA overhangs generated after digestion of the acceptorvector with SapI. In another embodiment, the donor vector has uniqueEarI sites flanking the DNA sequence of interest which sites, oncedigested with EarI, yield non-self complementary single-strand DNAoverhangs that are complementary with the single-strand DNA overhangsgenerated after digestion of the acceptor vector with EarI. In anotherembodiment, the restriction enzyme used to linearize the donor vectorand the acceptor vector is different, for instance, the donor vector hasunique SapI sites flanking the DNA sequence of interest, which sites,once digested with SapI, yield non-self complementary single-strand DNAoverhangs that are complementary with the single-strand DNA overhangsgenerated after digestion of the acceptor vector with EarI. Thepreparation of SapI and a corresponding methylase are disclosed U.S.Pat. No. 5,663,067.

In contrast to the use of SfiI vectors for directional cloning, whichyields 12 bases (3 potential codons) at the exchange sites, the use ofSapI vectors yields 3 bases (1 potential codon) at the exchange sites.Thus, SapI vectors are particularly useful in recipient vectors as theprotein encoded by the DNA sequence of interest in the recipient vectormay include only two additional residues, one at the N-terminus and oneat the C-terminus, e.g., a codon for methionine at the N-terminus and aresidue at the C-terminus which is frequently found at or near theC-terminus of a plurality of proteins. Accordingly, proteins expressedfrom SapI vectors are very close in composition to their correspondingnative protein. Moreover, the overlapping sequences which form theexchange site may be chosen to correspond to codons employed at acertain frequency in a particular organism.

In another embodiment, shown in FIGS. 14-15, a two enzyme approach isused for directional cloning. For the donor vector, the DNA sequence ofinterest is flanked by at least two restriction enzymes sites. One ofthe sites is for a first restriction enzyme which is an infrequentcutter of cDNAs or open reading frames in at least one species andgenerates single-strand DNA overhangs while the other site is for asecond restriction enzyme that is also an infrequent cutter of cDNAs oropen reading frames in at least one species and generates ends that arenot complementary to the ends generated by the first restriction enzyme.In one embodiment, the second restriction enzyme generates blunt ends.For instance, a donor vector has a drug resistance gene 1 and a DNAsequence of interest flanked by a restriction enzyme site for an enzyme(enzyme I) that is an infrequent cutter of human cDNAs or open readingframes and generates a single-strand DNA overhang, e.g., SgfI, and by asite for a restriction enzyme (enzyme II) that in an infrequent cutterin that same species and generates blunt ends, e.g., PmeI. The donorvector which, optionally, is an expression vector, is mixed with anacceptor vector, which has a different drug resistance gene, and atleast two restriction enzyme sites, and optionally a counter-selectablegene,. One of the sites in the acceptor vector is for a restrictionenzyme (enzyme III) that generates single-strand DNA overhangs which arecomplementary to those generated by enzyme I, e.g., PvuI or PacI, and arestriction enzyme site for an enzyme (enzyme IV) which generates endswhich can be ligated to the ends generated by enzyme II, e.g., enzyme IVgenerates blunt ends, for instance, enzyme IV is PmeI, EcoRV, BalI, orDraI. After digestion with the enzymes, ligation of the linearized donorand acceptors vectors yields a recipient vector comprising the differentdrug resistance gene and the DNA sequence of interest which is joined toacceptor vector sequences via ligation of the two pairs of complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs, or via ligation of complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs and blunt ends.

In one embodiment, a DNA sequence of interest is modified to containrestriction enzyme sites for a restriction enzyme which is an infrequentcutter of cDNAs or open reading frames in at least one species andgenerates single-strand DNA overhangs (enzyme I) and a restrictionenzyme that is an infrequent cutter of cDNAs or open reading frames andgenerates ends that are not complementary to the ends generated by thefirst restriction enzyme or blunt ends (enzyme II) (FIG. 15). The DNAsequence of interest is mixed with an oligonucleotide havingcomplementary sequences to the site for the infrequent cutter whichgenerates single-strand DNA overhangs and an oligonucleotide havingcomplementary sequences to the site recognized by the enzyme which is aninfrequent cutter and generates ends that are not complementary to theends generated by the first restriction enzyme, e.g., blunt ends, andthe mixture is subjected to an amplification reaction, yielding a DNAfragment. In one embodiment, the second restriction enzyme is a bluntcutter. The sites which were added to the ends of the DNA sequence ofinterest, once digested, yield a single-strand DNA overhang at each end,or a single-strand DNA overhang at one end and a blunt end at the other.Complementary single-strand DNA overhangs to the overhangs generated byenzyme I, or a complementary single-strand DNA overhang to the overhangsgenerated to enzyme I and a blunt end, are generated in an acceptorvector with restriction enzymes III and IV, respectively, yielding alinearized acceptor vector. The linearized acceptor vector, whichcomprises a drug resistance gene, is ligated to the digested DNAfragment, to result in a recipient vector. The recipient vector containsthe drug resistance gene of the acceptor vector and the DNA sequence ofinterest flanked by sites generated by the joining of the complementarysingle-stranded DNA overhangs at each end, or the complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs at one end and the blunt ends at the other.The SgfI/PmeI approach can result in a recipient vector which encodes aprotein with no additional residues at the N-terminus of the protein,e.g., one positioned 3′ to a RBS or Kozak sequence or encoding a fusionprotein with an N-terminal or C-terminal fusion of one or more aminoacid residues (FIGS. 16-17 and Table I, which shows enzymes whichgenerate blunt ends and the exchange site created by ligation of a bluntend generated by PmeI and a blunt end generated by each of thoseenzymes). Recognition Stop Codons Enzymes Sequence w/PmeI Codon(AA)fusion Isoschizomers AhaIII TTT{circumflex over ( )}AAA TAA None DraIPauAII SruI AluI AG{circumflex over ( )}CT No TCT(S) MltI BalITGG{circumflex over ( )}CCA No TCC(S)ANN(IMTNKSR) MlsI Mlu31I MluNI MscIMsp20I BfrBI ATG{circumflex over ( )}CAT No TCA(S)TNN(FLSYC) — BsaAIYAC{circumflex over ( )}GTR No TGT(C)RNN(IMVTANKDESRG) BstBAI MspYIPsuAI BsaBI GATNN{circumflex over ( )}NNATC TAA, TAG, TGATNN(FLSYCW)ATC(I) Bse8I BseJI Bsh1365I BsiBI BsrBRI MamI BsrBI CCGCTC(−3/−3) No TCT(S)CNN(LPHQR) AccBSI BstD102I Bst31NI MbiI Btrl CACGTC(−3/−3) No TGT(C)CNN(LPHQR) BmgBI Cac81 GCN{circumflex over ( )}NGC TAGTNG(LSW)CNN(LPHQR) BstC8I Cdil CATCG (−1/−1) TGA TGN(C) — CviJIRG{circumflex over ( )}CY No TCY(S) CviTI CviRI TG{circumflex over( )}CA No TCA(S) HpyCH4V HpyF44III Eco47III AGC{circumflex over ( )}GCTNo TGC(C)TNN(FLSYC) AfeI AitI Aor51HI FunI Eco781 GGC{circumflex over( )}GCC No TGC(C)CNN(LPHQR) EgeI EheI SfoI EcoICRI GAG{circumflex over( )}CTC No TCT(S)CNN(LPHQR) BpuAmI Ecl136II Eco53kI MxaI EcoRVGAT{circumflex over ( )}ATC No TAT(Y)CNN(LPHQR) CeqI Eco32I HjaI HpyCINsiCI EsaBC31 TC{circumflex over ( )}GA TGA None — FnuDlI CG{circumflexover ( )}CG No TCG(S) AccII BceBI BepI Bpu95I Bsh1236I Bsp50I Bsp123IBstFNI BstUI Bsu1532I BtkI Csp68KVI CspKVI FalII FauBII MvnI ThaI FspAIRTGC{circumflex over ( )}GCAY No TGC(C)AYN(IMT) — HaeI WGG{circumflexover ( )}CCW No TCC(S)WNN(IMTNKSRFLYC) — HaeIII GG{circumflex over( )}CC No TCC(S) BanAI BecAII Bim19II Bme361I BseQI BshI BshFI Bsp211IBspBRI BspKI BspRI BsuRI BteI CltI DsaII EsaBC4I FnuDI MchAII MfoAINgoPII NspLKI PalI Pde133I PflKI PhoI PlaI SbvI SfaI SuaI HindIIGTY{circumflex over ( )}RAC TAA, TGA None HinJCI HincII HpalGTT{circumflex over ( )}AAC TAA None BstEZ359I BstHPI KspAI SsrI Hpy81GTN{circumflex over ( )}NAC TAA, TGA TYA(FLS)CNN((LPHQR) HpyBII LpnIRGC{circumflex over ( )}GCY No TGC(C)YNN(FLSYCLPHQR) Bme142I MlyI GAGTC(5/5) TAA, TAG, TGA Any SchI Msll CAYNN{circumflex over ( )}NNRTG TAA,TAG, TGA TNN(FLSYCW)RTG(MV) SmiMI Mstl TGC{circumflex over ( )}GCA NoTGC(C)ANN(IMTNKSR) Acc16I AosI AviII FdiII FspI NsbI PamI Pun14627I NaelGCC{circumflex over ( )}GGC No TGG(C)CNN(LPHQR) CcoI PdiI SauBMKI SauHPISauLPI SauNI SauSI Slu1777I SspCI NlalV GGN{circumflex over ( )}NCC NoTNC(FSYC)CNN(LPHQR) AspNI BscBI BspLI PspN4I Nrul TCG{circumflex over( )}CGA No TCG(S)ANN(IMTNKSR) Bsp68I MluB2I Sbo13I SpoI NspBIICMG{circumflex over ( )}CKG No TCK(S)GNN(VADEG) MspAlI OlilCACNN{circumflex over ( )}NNGTG TAA, TAG, TGA TNN(FLSYCW)GTG(V) AleIPmaCl CAC{circumflex over ( )}GTG No TGT(S)GNN(VADEG) AcvI BbrPI BcoAIEco72I PmlI PmeI GTTT{circumflex over ( )}AAAC TAA None MssI PshAlGACNN{circumflex over ( )}NNGTC TAA, TAG, TGA TNN(FLSYCW)GTC(V) BoxIBstPAI Psil TTA{circumflex over ( )}TAA No TTA(L)ANN(IMTNKSR) — PvullCAG{circumflex over ( )}CTG No TCT(S)GNN(VADEG) BavI BavAI BavBIBsp153AI BspM39I BspO4I Cfr6I DmaI EclI NmeRI Pae17kI Pun14627II Pvu84IIUba153AI UbaM39I RsaI GT{circumflex over ( )}AC No TAC(Y) AfaI HpyBIPlaAII Scal AGT{circumflex over ( )}ACT No TAC(Y)TNN(FLSYCW) Acc113IAssI DpaI Eco255I RflFII Scil CTC{circumflex over ( )}GAG TGA None —Smal CCC{circumflex over ( )}GGG No TGG(C)GNN(VADEG) CfrJ4I PaeBI PspALISnaBl TAC{circumflex over ( )}GTA No TGT(S)ANN(IMTNKSR) BstSNI Eco105ISrfI GCCG{circumflex over ( )}GGGC No TGG(C)GCN(A) — Sspl AAT{circumflexover ( )}ATT No TAT(Y)ANN(IMTNKSR) — SspD51 GGTGA (8/8) TAA, TAG, TGAAny — Stul AGG{circumflex over ( )}CCT No TCC(S)TNN(FLSYCW) AatI AspMIEco147I GdiI PceI Pme55I SarI Sru30DI SseBI SteI Swal ATTT{circumflexover ( )}AAAT TAA None BstRZ246I BstSWI MspSWI SmiI Xcal GTA{circumflexover ( )}TAC No TTA(L)CNN(LPHQR) BspM90I BssNAI Bst1107I BstBSI BstZ17IXmnl GAANN{circumflex over ( )}NNTTC TAA, TAG, TGA TNN(FLSYCW)TTC(F)Asp700I BbvAI MroXI PdmI Zral GAC{circumflex over ( )}GTC NoTGT(S)CNN(LPHQR) —

The Sgfl/PmeI approach may also be used to introduce two DNA fragmentsof interest into the same vector (FIGS. 18-19). For example, a donorvector is obtained or prepared that contains a drug resistance gene 1and a DNA sequence of interest flanked by a restriction site for arestriction enzyme which is an infrequent cutter of cDNAs or openreading frames in at least one species and generates single-strand DNAoverhangs (enzyme I), e.g., SgfI, and a site for a restriction enzymewhich is an infrequent cutter of cDNAs or open reading frames andgenerates blunt ends (enzyme II), e.g., PmeI. An acceptor vector isprepared or obtained that contains a drug resistant gene 2, arestriction site for a restriction enzyme (enzyme III) which generatessingle-strand DNA overhangs that are complementary to the overhangs in adonor vector linearized with enzyme I, which restriction enzyme isdifferent than enzyme I, e.g., PvuI, and a restriction site for anenzyme which generates blunt ends (enzyme IV), and is different thanenzyme II, e.g., HpaI. The acceptor vector also includes two additionalrestriction sites, each of which are 5′ or 3′ to the DNA sequence ofinterest in the acceptor vector, one of which is for a restrictionenzyme (enzyme V) which generates single-strand DNA overhangs that arecomplementary to the overhangs generated by enzyme I, which restrictionenzyme is different than enzyme I, e.g., PacI, and another for arestriction enzyme that generates blunt ends (enzyme VI), which enzymeis different than enzyme II or enzyme IV, e.g., SwaI. The donor vectoris linearized with enzyme I and enzyme II and ligated to an acceptorvector linearized with enzyme III and enzyme IV, to yield a recipientvector having drug resistance gene 2, the DNA sequence of interest, andsites for restriction enzymes V and VI which are both 5′ or 3′ to theDNA sequence of interest. A second donor vector having a drug resistancegene and a different DNA sequence of interest flanked by a restrictionsite for enzyme I and another for enzyme II is digested with enzymes Iand II, and mixed with the recipient vector, which is linearized withenzymes V and VI, resulting in a second recipient vector having both DNAfragments of interest. Such a recipient vector is useful to studyprotein-protein interactions, e.g., in two hybrid or colocalizationstudies, and is particularly useful in systems in which one protein isnot expressed or is only expressed at low levels in the absence ofexpression of a binding protein for that protein.

V. Libraries

The vectors of the invention may be employed to prepare libraries ofopen reading frames, such as ones representing at least 10%, and up to50% or more, of the open reading frames for the genome of a particularorganism, as well as libraries of mutated open reading frames. Forinstance, amplification primers for individual open reading frame aredesigned. For the forward primer, in one embodiment, an SgWl site isplaced one base 5′ (upstream) from a start codon (ATG) for the openreading frame, which primer is of a length and has sufficient sequencefrom the reading frame so as to provide an adequate Tm for annealing theprimer during amplification (e.g., >45° C.) to a template having thecomplement of the open reading frame. The reverse primer includes a PmeIsite appended directly to the antisense of the last codon prior to thestop codon of the open reading frame. The reverse primer is of a lengthand has sufficient antisense sequence from the C-terminal portion of theopen reading frame so as to provide an adequate T_(m) for annealing theprimer during amplification to the template, and preferably matched inTm to the corresponding forward primer (e.g., >45° C). The forward andreverse primers preferably have an additional 3 to 5 bases appended 5′to the SgfI and PmeI sites to ensure rapid digestion of the amplifiedopen reading frames by those enzymes. The open reading frame is thenamplified from a cDNA template, an RNA preparation, genomic DNA or aplasmid clone having the open reading frame. The open reading frame ispreferably amplified by a high fidelity polymerase, e.g., Pfu DNApolymerase, especially if the amplified region is greater than 800 bp.

The amplified open reading frame may be cloned in two ways: A-tailing ordigestion with SgfI and PmeI, and ligation to an appropriatelylinearized vector. In one embodiment, the amplified DNA is tailed withan additional adenine residue at each 3′ end and then cloned withstandard T-tailed PCR cloning vectors (e.g., pGEM®-T Easy Vector,Promega). Alternatively, topoisomerase I sites are appended to the 5′ends of the forward and reverse primers and the PCR fragment clonedusing a TOPO®-cloning vector (e.g., pCRO-Blunt, Invitrogen, or if alsoA-tailed, pCR®4-TOPO, Invitrogen). If Taq DNA polymerase is used togenerate the amplified open reading frame, then A-tailing isunnecessary. For instance, the PCR fragment is treated with 0.2 mM dATPin 1×Taq reaction buffer having 5 units Taq DNA polymerase for 15minutes at 70° C., and a small portion is removed (e.g., 1-2 μl) for aligation reaction, e.g., with pGEMS-T Easy Vector, or digestion withSgfI and PmeI, and ligation to a vector digested with SgfI and PmeI,e.g., ACCEPT-6 (see FIG. 21C). Optionally, the amplified fragment ispurified prior to digestion with SgfI and PmeI, e.g., to remove theprimers. Subsequent to the restriction digest, the fragment isoptionally purified to remove small oligonucleotides liberated from thedigested fragment.

The ligation mix is then transformed into an appropriate E. coli host,e.g., JM109, and plated on selective media, for instance LB-agar plateswith 100 μg/ml ampicillin. After an overnight incubation at 37° C., theresulting colonies are picked, grown overnight in LB media supplementedwith 100 μg/ml ampicillin, plasmid DNA purified and screened for theappropriately sized insert, e.g., by digesting the plasmids with SgfIand PmeI and subjecting the digested plasmids to gel electrophoresis.

The process of cloning open reading frames can be done in parallel witha plurality of open reading frames of an organism or group of organisms.For example, forward and reverse primers can be provided in an arrayedformat, such as in a 96-well or 384-well plate, such that the forwardand reverse primers for a particular open reading frame are in the samewell. Template cDNA and amplification reagents can be providedsimultaneously to the whole plate and an amplification reaction carriedout in all 96 or 384 wells simultaneously. Similarly, the steps ofpurifying amplified DNA, optionally digesting the amplified DNA withrestriction enzymes or A-tailing of the amplified DNA, ligation tovectors and transforming of E. coli can all be accomplished in 96-wellor 384-well plates. The transformation mixtures can be individuallyplated on selective media, and after an overnight incubation at 37° C.,the resulting colonies are picked, and grown overnight in LB mediasupplemented with 100 μg/ml ampicillin. Plasmid DNA is purified andscreened for the appropriately sized insert, for instance, by digestingthe plasmids with SgfI and PmeI and performing gel electrophoresis.Colonies harboring plasmids with the correctly sized inserts, orisolated plasmids can then be placed back in 96-well or 384-well plates,thus producing an arrayed collection, or library, of open readingframes. In one embodiment, the array represents 5% or more, e.g., 10% to30%, or 70% or more of the open reading frames of an organism or groupof organisms. Alternatively, the array may contain a particular subsetof open reading frames, for example, a multigene family of paralogousgenes from a given organism, a group of orthologous genes from multipleorganisms, a set of genes that are involved in a similar pathway (e.g.,a signal transduction pathway), or a group of genes encodingfinctionally related gene products, e.g., including but not limited tooxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases, isomerases orligases, e.g., kinases, e.g., receptor or non-receptor tyrosine kinasesor receptor or non-receptor serine/threonine kinases including MAPkinases, phosphatases, e.g., tyrosine phosphatases, proteases, guanylatecyclases, G-protein coupled receptors, G-protein regulators, cytochromeP450 enzymes, phospholipases, proteins for medical use, for instance,therapeutic proteins, proteins for industrial use, for instance, inbiocatalysis, and the like.

In another embodiment, a non-arrayed library of open reading frames isemployed as a source for selection or screening for a particularproperty, e.g., in vivo binding to a protein of interest in a yeast twohybrid screen or altering the expression of a gene product of an openreading frame present in the vector backbone (a coexpression system). Inone embodiment, DNA from colonies grown in each well can be purified,and small aliquots from each well can be combined into one common poolto be transformed into yeast which express a protein of interest.Alternatively, a library of open reading frames is introduced into avector which encodes a protein of interest and clones identified whichhave open reading frames encoding gene products which interact with theprotein of interest or increase expression of the protein of interest.In one embodiment, the two genes which encode interacting gene productsare present in a polycistronic RNA, e.g., one having an IRES.

A pooled library may also be employed for directed evolution. Thus, aparticular open reading frame is mutagenized, for example, by mutagenicPCR. Each mutagenized open reading frame in the mutagenized pool hasSgfI and PmeI sites at the 5′ and 3′ ends, respectively, of the openreading frame. The mutagenized pool is optionally purified, digestedwith SgtI and PmeI, optionally purified away from small oligonucleotidesliberated by the restriction digests, and ligated to an appropriatevector, e.g. ACCEPT-6. The ligation mix is then transformed into anappropriate E. Coli host, e.g., JM109, and plated on selective media,LB-agar plates with 100 μg/ml ampicillin. After an overnight incubationat 37° C., the resulting colonies are picked, grown overnight in 96-wellor 384-well plates using selective LB media and screened for a selectedactivity, e.g., an activity that is different than the activity of thegene product encoded by the corresponding nonmutagenized open readingframe. In some embodiments, multiple clones are present in each well,and sib-selection methods employed to identify clones with a desirablecharacteristic(s). For example, if one well shows desirablecharacteristics, it can be plated on selective media, and after anovernight incubation at 37° C., the resulting colonies are picked,re-grown overnight in selective media in 96-well or 384-well plates andrescreened for the characteristic(s).

The invention will be further described by the following non-limitingexamples.

EXAMPLE I

An ampicillin-sensitive donor vector was prepared which has a greenlight emitting luciferase gene flanked by SfiI sites which, afterdigestion, do not yield complementary single-strand DNA overhangs (FIG.20A). An ampicillin resistant acceptor vector was also prepared whichhas a red light emitting luciferase gene flanked by SfiI sites which,after digestion, do not yield complementary single-strand DNA overhangsbut each of which is complementary to one of the single-strand DNAoverhangs flanking the green light emitting luciferase gene. These twovectors were digested in T4 DNA ligase buffer with SfiI at 50° C. for 1hour. The reactions were cooled to room temperature, and T4 DNA ligaseadded. The ligation reaction was conducted at 22° C. for 30-60 minutes.A portion of the ligation reaction was subjected to gel electrophoresis,while another portion was used to transform JM109. The transformed cellswere placed on nitrocellulose and incubated overnight.

The filter was floated on 1 ml 100 mM citrate (pH 5.5) with 1 mMluciferin potassium salt at 40° C. An image was then obtained with a CCDdigital camera (Minolta Dimage 7; 4 seconds f4.5). The results show thatSfiI cuts in ligase buffer, and that the cut ends religate in thepresence of T4 DNA ligase (FIG. 20B). To improve the number of desiredclones, an acceptor vector containing a counterselectable marker may beemployed.

EXAMPLE II

Vectors

The pDONOR-4 CAT vector was utilized as the source for thechloramphenicol acetyl transferase (CAT) reporter gene with its nativepromoter between the SgfI and PmeI sites. pDONOR-4 contains a kanamycinresistance gene for bacterial selection, and restriction enzyme sitesSgfI and PmeI for directional and flexible cloning.

The pDONOR-6 LacZ vector was utilized as the source for the LacZreporter gene. pDONOR-6 contains a kanamycin resistance gene forbacterial selection, a T7 bacteriophage promoter, and restriction enzymesites SgtI and PmeI for directional and flexible cloning.

The pACCEPT-F vector (FIG. 21A) was utilized as the source of thebackbone sequence for the reporter genes. pACCEPT-F contains anampicillin resistance gene for bacterial selection, a T7 bacteriophagepromoter, and restriction enzyme sites Sgf and PmeI for directional andflexible cloning.

Results

The LacZ reporter gene from pDONOR-6 LacZ was transferred to pACCEPT-Fin a two step process. First, pDONOR-6 LacZ was digested with therestriction enzymes SgfI and PmeI in Promega Buffer C with BSA at 37° C.for 1 hour to free the LacZ gene from the vector. Following digestion,the restriction enzymes were inactivated by heating the reaction tube to65° C. for 20 minutes. Second, linearized pACCEPT-F, T4 DNA ligase, ATP,DTT and additional Buffer C were added to the reaction tube and ligationwas initiated by incubating the tube at 22° C. for 1 hour. Followingligation, an aliquot of the reaction was transformed into E. coli cells(JM109), and the transformation mixture was plated onto Luria Broth (LB)plates containing ampicillin, X-Gal, and rhamnose. The colonies werevisually screened for their ability to utilize X-Gal thereby producing ablue color. Results demonstrated that approximately 90% of the coloniesproduced a blue color, demonstrating the percent transfer of the LacZgene from the pDONOR-6 LacZ to the pACCEPT-F vector (percentage wascalculated by total # blue colonies/total# colonies×100).

The LacZ reporter gene from pDONOR-6 LacZ was also transferred to thepDEST-F in a two step process. First, vectors pDONOR-6 LacZ andpACCEPT-F were digested in one tube with the restriction enzymes SgtIand PmeI in Promega Buffer C with BSA at 37° C. for 1 hour to free theLacZ gene from the vector. Following digestion, the restriction enzymeswere inactivated by heating the reaction tube to 65° C. for 20 minutes.Second, T4 DNA ligase, ATP, DTT and additional Buffer C were added tothe reaction tube and ligation was initiated by incubating the tube at22° C. for 1 hour. Following ligation, an aliquot of the reaction wastransformed into E. coli cells (JM109), and the transformation mixturewas plated onto LB plates containing ampicillin, X-Gal, and rhamnose.Results demonstrated that approximately 81% of the colonies produced ablue color.

The CAT reporter gene from pDONOR-4 CAT was transferred to the pACCEPT-Fin a two step process. First, pDONOR-4 CAT was digested with SgfI andPmeI in Promega Buffer C with BSA at 37° C. for 1 hour to free the CATgene from the vector. Following digestion, the restriction enzymes wereinactivated at 65° C. for 20 minutes. Second, linearized pACCEPT-F, T4DNA ligase, ATP, DTT, and additional Buffer C were added to the reactiontube and ligation was performed at 25° C. for 1 hour. Followingligation, an aliquot of the reaction was transformed into E. coli JM109bacterial cells, and the tranformation mixture was plated onto LB plateswith ampicillin. Of the resultant colonies, 100 were re-plated onto LBplates with chloramphenicol. Colonies which grew on chloramphenicolcontained the CAT gene. Transfer efficiency of the CAT gene from thepDONOR-4 CAT to pACCEPT-F vector was determined to be approximately 94%(percentage was calculated by total # CAT resistant colonies/total#colonies tested×100).

The CAT reporter gene from pDONOR-4 CAT was transferred to the pACCEPT-Fin a one step process. To the reaction tube was added pDONOR-4 CAT,linearized pACCEPT-F, restriction enzymes SgtI and PmeI, Promega BufferC with BSA, T4 DNA ligase, ATP, and DTT. The restriction digest wasinitiated by incubating the reaction tube at 37° C. for 1 hour.Following digestion, the reaction temperature was lowered to 25° C. for1 hour to allow for the ligation reaction to occur. Following ligation,an aliquot of the reaction was transformed into E. coli JM109 bacterialcells, and the tranformation mixture was plated onto LB plates withampicillin. Of the resultant colonies, 100 were re-plated onto LB plateswith chloramphenicol. Colonies which grew on chloramphenicol containedthe CAT gene. Transfer efficiency of the CAT gene from the pENTRY-4 CATto the acceptor vector was determined to be approximately 37%.

EXAMPLE III

An inducible system useful for cloning including directional cloningincludes a recombinant host cell encoding a gene product regulated by aninducible promoter, which gene product specifically increasestranscription of a DNA of interest in a vector introduced to the cell.In one embodiment, a first vector includes the open reading frame for agene of interest operably linked to a promoter, e.g., a T7 promoter,which vector has a transcription terminator sequence, for instance, therrnB terminator (to reduce aberrant expression), 5′ to the promoter, adrug resistance gene, e.g., kanR, sequences which permit the vector tobe maintained in a host cell at high copy numbers, optionally sequenceswhich reduce vector multimerization, e.g., cer sequences, as well asrestriction enzyme sites flanking the open reading frame. In oneembodiment, the restriction enzyme sites flanking the open reading frameare for two different infrequent cutters which do not generatecomplementary DNA ends (enzyme I and enzyme II) (FIG. 21). The vector inFIG. 21 also includes a T7 transcription terminator 3′ of a PmeI site. Asecond vector having a backbone of interest for the open reading frame,preferably contains a different drug resistance gene, e.g., amp^(R), andoptionally the same transcription terminator sequences, promoter,sequences which permit the vector to be maintained in a host cell athigh copy numbers, and optionally sequences which reduce vectormultimerization as the vector containing the open reading frame ofinterest, wherein the transcription terminator sequences and promoter inthe second vector are 5′ to restriction enzyme sites for two restrictionenzymes (enzyme III and enzyme IV) that generate ends that arecompatible with ends generated by enzyme I and enzyme II, respectively.For instance, enzyme I is SgfI, enzyme II is Pmel, enzyme III is PvuI,and enzyme IV is DraI. In another embodiment, the restriction sitesrecognized by enzymes I and III are the same, e.g., sites for SgfI, andthe restriction sites recognized by enzymes II and IV are the same,e.g., sites for PmeI. The resulting vector is introduced into a hostcell which can be induced to express a gene product which increasestranscription of the promoter which is 5′ to the open reading frame,e.g., a gene product such as T7 RNA polymerase.

For example, a rhamnose-inducible system including a host cell useful toa clone and express a gene of interest was prepared. For instance, oneor more of the rhaBAD catalytic genes in JM109 are deleted, replaced orinterrupted via insertional mutagenesis. In one embodiment, the rhaBgene in JM109 was deleted, and a vector with the rhaBAD promoter (e.g.,see Egan et al., J. Mol. Biol., 234:87 (1993) and Wilms et al., BiotechBioeng., 73:95 (2001)) linked to the T7 RNA polymerase open readingframe, stably introduced to those cells, yielding recombinant host cellJM109RX. A vector containing a luciferase gene linked to the T7 promoterwas introduced to JM109RX, BL21(DE3) (Novagen), and BL21-AI (Invitrogen)cells. The transformed cells were grown at either 25° C. or 37° C., thencontacted with rhamnose (JM109RX), IPTG (BL21(DE3)), or arabinose(BL21-AI), and luciferase activity measured at various time points.

The data showed that there was a much lower level of uninducedluciferase expression in transformed JM109RX cells than in thecomparable arabinose inducible system. The rhamnose inducible system maythus be particularly useful to clone toxic genes present in a donorvector or an amplified fragment, although the rhamnose-inducible systemis not limited to the cloning of those genes.

Moreover, the induction of luciferase activity in transformed JM109RXcells was slow compared to luciferase activity in transformed BL21 (DE3)or BL21-AI cells, yet resulted in high final induction levels, e.g.,high protein levels, e.g., at times t=4 hours at which RLU were 100×greater (FIGS. 22A and C). Further, the use of a rhamnose-induciblesystem at 25° C. yielded more luciferase activity than at 37° C., e.g.,at least 10-70 fold more at peak (FIGS. 22A and C). The observedexpression profile of such a system may allow for increased solubilityof the expressed protein, e.g., due to increased time to fold. Inaddition, the rhamnose-inducible system is glucose repressible.Therefore, combinations of rhanmose and glucose may be employed tofinely tune the expression profile of a gene of interest which is linkedto a rhaBAD promoter.

EXAMPLE IV

A system to express a toxic gene was prepared. A stably transformed hostcell, JM109, was prepared that contained an expression vector encodingan immunity factor for bamase, barstar, which was expressed from aconstitutive promoter, e.g., the 4c promoter, integrated into lamB. Avector containing a lambda P_(L) promoter linked to a truncated bamasegene (see, e.g., Accession No. X12871 or M14442 (barnase genes fromBacillus amyloliquefaciens) or AE007600 (a bamase gene from Alostridiumacetobutylicum), which lacked the secretory sequence, was introduced tothose stably transformed cells.

All publications, patents and patent applications are incorporatedherein by reference. While in the foregoing specification this inventionhas been described in relation to certain preferred embodiments thereof,and many details have been set forth for purposes of illustration, itwill be apparent to those skilled in the art that the invention issusceptible to additional embodiments and that certain of the detailsdescribed herein may be varied considerably without departing from thebasic principles of the invention.

1. A vector comprising a recognition site for a first restriction enzymethat generates a 3′ TA overhang which is 5′ to a recognition site for asecond restriction enzyme which generates blunt ends, which vector, oncedigested with the first and second restriction enzymes and ligated to aDNA fragment comprising an open reading frame flanked by an endgenerated by SgnI and an end generated by a third restriction enzymewhich has infrequent restriction sites in cDNAs or open reading framesfrom at least one species and generates blunt ends, yields a recombinantvector comprising the open reading frame.
 2. The vector of claim 1wherein the second and third restriction enzymes are the same.
 3. Thevector of claim 1 wherein the second and third restriction enzymes aredifferent.
 4. The vector of claim 1 wherein the second restrictionenzyme is PmeI, EcoRV or Ball.
 5. The vector of claim 1 wherein thesecond restriction enzyme is PmeI, Dral, EsaBC3I, HindIII, HpaI, SciI orSwaI.
 6. The vector of claim 1 wherein the second restriction enzyme isAluI, BalI, BfrBI, BsaAI, BsaBI, BsrBI, BtrI, Cac8I, CdiI, CviJI, CviRI,Eco47III, Eco78I, EcoICRI, EcoRV, FnuDll, FspAI, HaeI, HaeEff, Hpy8I,LpnI, MlyI, MslI, MstI, NaeI, NalIV, NruI, NspBII, OliI, PmaCI, PmeI,PshAI, PsiI, PvuII, RsaI, ScaI, SmaI, SnaBI, SrfI, SspI, SspD5I, StuI,XcaI, XmnI, or ZraI.
 7. The vector of claim 1 wherein the restrictionenzyme that generates a 3′ TA overhang is SgfI.
 8. The vector of claim 1which further comprises an open reading frame which includes therecognition site for the first restriction enzyme.
 9. The vector ofclaim 1 which comprises an appropriately positioned ribosome bindingsite 5′ to the nucleotide cleaved by the first restriction enzyme. 10.The vector of claim 1 wherein ligation generates the following sequencein the recombinant vector AAGGAGCGATCGCYATG (SEQ ID NO:69) orX₁X₂X₃GCGATCGCCATG (SEQ ID NO:70), wherein X₁-X₃, X₂X₃G or X₃GC is acodon which is not a stop codon, and wherein Y is A, T, G or C.
 11. Thevector of claim 1 wherein ligation generates the following sequence inthe recombinant vector X₁X₂X₃GTTTY₁Y₂, wherein X₁X₂X₃ is a codon in anopen reading frame which is not a stop codon and Y₁ and Y₂ each=A, Y₁=Aand Y₂=G or Y₁=G and Y₂=A.
 12. The vector of claim 1 wherein ligationgenerates the following sequence in the recombinant vectorX₁X₂X₃GTTTY₁Y₂, wherein X₁X₂X₃, X₂X₃G or X₃GT is a codon in an openreading frame which is not a stop codon and Y₁ is not A when Y₂ is A orG, or Y₁ is not G when Y₂ is A.
 13. A vector comprising a first openreading frame which includes a recognition site for a first restrictionenzyme that generates a 3′ TA overhang and a recognition site for asecond restriction enzyme that is not in the open reading framegenerates blunt ends, which vector, once digested with the first andsecond restriction enzymes and ligated to a DNA fragment comprising asecond open reading flanked by an end generated by SgfI and a thirdrestriction enzyme which has infrequent restriction sites in cDNAs oropen reading frames from at least one species and generates blunt ends,yields a recombinant vector comprising a third open reading framecomprising the first and second open reading frames, which third openreading frame encodes a fuision peptide or protein.
 14. A vectorcomprising a ribosome binding site which optionally overlaps by onenucleotide with a SgfI recognition site and a recognition site for afirst restriction enzyme that generates blunt ends, which vector, oncedigested with SgfI and the first restriction enzyme and ligated to a DNAfragment comprising an open reading frame encoding a peptide orpolypeptide flanked by    5′ CGCCATGX₁Y₁ (SEQ ID NO:2) 3′ TAGCGGTACX₂Y₂(SEQ ID NO:71)

and a blunt end generated by a second restriction enzyme that hasinfrequent restriction sites in cDNAs or open reading frames from atleast one species and generates blunt ends, yields a recombinant vectorwhich encodes the peptide or polypeptide, wherein X₁ is the first codonwhich is 3′ to the start codon for the open reading frame, wherein X₂ isthe complement of X₁, wherein Y₁ is the remainder of the open readingframe, and wherein Y₂ is the complement of Y₁.
 15. A support comprisinga plurality of recombinant vectors, two or more of which comprise anopen reading frame for a different polypeptide, wherein at least onerecombinant vector comprises a promoter and a first open reading framewhich is flanked by two exchange sites, wherein the exchange sites areformed by ligation of a vector comprising the promoter which is 5′ to arecognition site for a first restriction enzyme that generates a 3′ TAoverhang which is 5′ to a recognition site for a first restrictionenzyme which generates blunt ends, which vector is digested with thefirst and second restriction enzymes, and a DNA sequence comprising thefirst open reading frame flanked by an end generated by SgfI and an endgenerated by a third restriction enzyme which has infrequent restrictionsites in cDNAs or open reading frames from at least one species andgenerates blunt ends.
 16. The support of claim 15 wherein the vectorfurther comprises a second open reading frame 3′ to the promoter whichsecond open reading frame includes the recognition site for the firstrestriction enzyme, which second open reading frame, when ligated to thefirst open reading frame, forms a third open reading frame which encodesa fusion peptide or protein.
 17. The support of claim 15 whereinligation generates the following sequence in the recombinant vectorAAGGAGCGATCGCYATG (SEQ ID NO:69) or X₁X₂X₃GCGATCGCCATG (SEQ ID NO:70),wherein X₁-X₃, X₂X₃G or X₃GC is a codon which is not a stop codon, andwherein Y is A, T, G or C.
 18. The support of claim 15 wherein ligationgenerates the following sequence in the recombinant vectorX₁X₂X₃GTTTY₁Y₂, wherein X₁X₂X₃ is a codon in an open reading frame whichis not a stop codon and Y₁ and Y₂ each=A, Y₁=A and Y₂=G or Y₁=G andY₂=A.
 19. The support of claim 15 wherein ligation generates thefollowing sequence in the recombinant vector X₁X₂X₃GTTTY₁Y₂, whereinX₁X₂X₃, X₂X₃G or X₃GT is a codon in an open reading frame which is not astop codon and Y₁ is not A when Y₂ is A or G, or Y₁ is not G when Y₂ isA.
 20. A support comprising a plurality of recombinant vectors, two ormore of which comprise an open reading frame for a differentpolypeptide, wherein at least one recombinant vector comprises apromoter and a first open reading frame comprising a second open readingframe and one or more codons which are in-frame with the second openreading frame, wherein the second open reading frame is flanked by twoexchange sites, wherein the exchange sites are formed by ligation of aDNA sequence comprising the second open reading frame which includes aPmeI recognition site and is flanked at the 5′ end by a recognition sitefor a first restriction enzyme that generates complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs, which DNA sequence is digested with PmeIand the first restriction enzyme, and a vector comprising a blunt end atthe 5′ end which is 5′ to the one or more in-frame codons and thepromoter which is 5′ to an end generated by a second restriction enzymewhich generates single-strand DNA overhangs which are complementary tothe single-strand DNA overhangs generated by the first restrictionenzyme.
 21. The support of claim 20 wherein the exchange site formed byblunt end ligation includes N₁N₂N₃GTTTN₄N₅, wherein N₁N₂N₃GTTT is asequence from the 3′ end of the DNA sequence, wherein if N₁N₂N₃ do notcode for a stop codon, N₄ and N₅=A, or N₄=A and N₅=G or N₄=G and N₅=A,or wherein NIN₂N₃ code for a stop codon.
 22. A support comprising aplurality of recombinant vectors, two or more of which comprise an openreading frame for a different polypeptide, wherein at least onerecombinant vector comprises a promoter and an open reading frame whichis flanked by two exchange sites, wherein the exchange sites are formedby ligation of a DNA sequence comprising the open reading frame which isflanked by at least two restriction enzyme sites for a first restrictionenzyme which is a hapaxoterministic restriction enzyme, which DNAsequence is digested with the first restriction enzyme to generate afirst DNA fragment flanked by a first pair of non-self complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs, and a vector comprising the promoter andnon-essential DNA sequences that are flanked by two restriction enzymesites for a second restriction enzyme which is a hapaxoterministicrestriction enzyme, which vector is digested with the second restrictionenzyme to generate a second DNA fragment which lacks non-essential DNAsequences and is flanked by a second pair of non-self complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs, wherein each of the second pair of thenon-self-complementary DNA overhangs is complementary to only one of thesingle-strand DNA overhangs of the first pair of non-self complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs.
 23. The support of any one of claims 15 or20 to 22 which is multi-well plate.
 24. The support of any one of claims15 or 20 to 22 wherein the plurality of recombinant vectors each encodea different polypeptide from the same organism.
 25. The support of anyone of claims 15 or 20 to 22 wherein the plurality of recombinantvectors encode orthologous polypeptides.
 26. The support of any one ofclaims 15 or 20 to 22 wherein the plurality of recombinant vectorsencode paralogous polypeptides.
 27. A method to prepare a supportcomprising a plurality of recombinant vectors or recombinant cells,comprising: a) selecting a plurality of recombinant vectors orrecombinant cells comprising recombinant vectors, wherein two or more ofthe recombinant vectors comprise an open reading frame for a differentpolypeptide, wherein at least one recombinant vector comprises apromoter and a first open reading frame which is flanked by two exchangesites, wherein the exchange sites are formed by ligation of a vectorcomprising the promoter which is 5′ to a recognition site for a firstrestriction enzyme that generates a 3′ TA overhang, which is 5′ to arecognition site for a second restriction enzyme which generates bluntends, which vector is digested with the first and second restrictionenzymes, and a DNA sequence comprising the first open reading frameflanked by an end generated by SgfI and an end generated by a thirdrestriction enzyme which has infrequent restriction sites in cDNAs oropen reading frames from at least one species and generates blunt ends;and b) introducing the selected recombinant vectors or recombinant cellsto one or more receptacles of the support.
 28. A method to prepare asupport comprising a plurality of recombinant vectors or recombinantcells, comprising: a) selecting a plurality of recombinant vectors orrecombinant cells comprising recombinant vectors, wherein two or more ofthe recombinant vectors comprise an open reading frame for a differentpolypeptide, wherein at least one recombinant vector comprises apromoter and a first open reading frame comprising a second open readingframe and one or more codons which are in-frame with the second openreading frame, wherein the second open reading frame is flanked by twoexchange sites, wherein the exchange sites are formed by ligation of aDNA sequence comprising the second open reading frame which includes aPmeI recognition site and is flanked at the 5′ end by a recognition sitefor a first restriction enzyme that generates complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs, which DNA sequence is digested with PmeIand the first restriction enzyme, and a vector comprising a blunt end atthe 5′ end which is 5′ to the one or more codons and the promoter whichis 5′ to an end generated by a second restriction enzyme which generatessingle-strand DNA overhangs which are complementary to the single-strandDNA overhangs generated by the first restriction enzyme; and b)introducing the selected recombinant vectors or recombinant cells to oneor more receptacles of the support.
 29. A method to prepare a supportcomprising a plurality of recombinant vectors or recombinant cells,comprising: a) selecting a plurality of recombinant vectors orrecombinant cells comprising recombinant vectors, wherein two or more ofthe recombinant vectors comprise an open reading frame for a differentpolypeptide, wherein at least one recombinant vector comprises apromoter and an open reading frame which is flanked by two exchangesites, wherein the exchange sites are formed by ligation of a DNAsequence comprising the open reading frame which is flanked by at leasttwo restriction enzyme sites for a first restriction enzyme which is ahapaxoterministic restriction enzyme, which DNA sequence is digestedwith the first restriction enzyme to generate a first DNA fragmentflanked by a first pair of non-self complementary single-strand DNAoverhangs, and a vector comprising the promoter and non-essential DNAsequences that are flanked by two restriction enzyme sites for a secondrestriction enzyme which is a hapaxoterministic restriction enzyme,which vector is digested with the second restriction enzyme to generatea second DNA fragment which lacks non-essential DNA sequences and isflanked by a second pair of non-self complementary single-strand DNAoverhangs, wherein each of the second pair of the non-self-complementaryDNA overhangs is complementary to only one of the single-strand DNAoverhangs of the first pair of non-self complementary single-strand DNAoverhangs; and b) introducing the selected recombinant vectors orrecombinant cells to one or more receptacles of the support.
 30. Themethod of any one of claims 27 to 29 wherein each of the selectedrecombinant vectors encodes a different paralogous protein.
 31. Themethod of any one of claims 27 to 29 wherein each of the selectedrecombinant vectors encodes a different protein in a catabolic pathway.32. The method of any one of claims 27 to 29 wherein each of theselected recombinant vectors encodes a different protein in abiosynthetic pathway.
 33. The method of any one of claims 27 to 29wherein each of the selected recombinant vectors encodes a differentprotease.
 34. The method of any one of claims 27 to 29 wherein each ofthe selected recombinant vectors encodes a protein from the sameorganism.
 35. The method of any one of claims 27 to 29 wherein each ofthe selected recombinant vectors encodes orthologous proteins.
 36. Amethod to prepare a plurality of mutagenized recombinant vectors,comprising: a) providing DNAs comprising a plurality of mutagenized openreading frames flanked by a SgfI recognition site and a site for a firstrestriction enzyme which has infrequent restriction sites in cDNAs oropen reading frames from at least one species and generates blunt ends;and b) digesting the DNAs with SgtI and the first restriction enzyme andligating the digested DNAs to a vector comprising a promoter which is 5′to a recognition site for a second restriction enzyme that generates 3′TA overhangs which is 5′ to a recognition site for a third restrictionenzyme which generates blunt ends, which vector is digested with thesecond and third restriction enzymes, to yield a plurality ofmutagenized recombinant vectors.
 37. A method to prepare a plurality ofmutagenized recombinant vectors, comprising: a) providing DNAscomprising a plurality of mutagenized open reading frames flanked by arecognition site for a first restriction enzyme that generates a 3′ TAoverhang and site for a second restriction enzyme which has infrequentrestriction sites in cDNAs or open reading frames from at least onespecies and generates blunt ends; and b) digesting the DNAs with thefirst and second restriction enzymes and ligating the digested DNAs to avector comprising a promoter which is 5′ to a SgW recognition site whichis 5′ to a recognition site for a third restriction enzyme whichgenerates blunt ends, which vector is digested with SgfI and the thirdrestriction enzyme, to yield a plurality of mutagenized recombinantvectors.
 38. The method of claim 37 wherein the first restriction enzymeis PmeI.
 39. A method to prepare a plurality of mutagenized recombinantvectors, comprising: a) providing DNAs comprising a plurality ofmutagenized open reading frames flanked by two restriction enzyme sitesfor a first restriction enzyme which is a hapaxoterministic restrictionenzyme and generates a first pair of non-self complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs; and b) digesting the DNAs with the firstrestriction enzyme and ligating the digested DNAs to a vector comprisinga promoter and non-essential DNA sequences flanked by two restrictionenzyme sites for a second restriction enzyme which is ahapaxoterministic restriction enzyme, which vector is digested with thesecond restriction enzyme generating a DNA fragment which lacksnon-essential DNA sequences but comprises a second pair of non-selfcomplementary single-strand DNA overhangs, wherein each of the secondpair of the non-self-complementary DNA overhangs is complementary toonly one of the single-strand DNA overhangs of the first pair ofnon-self complementary single-strand DNA overhangs, to yield a pluralityof mutagenized recombinant vectors.
 40. A support comprising a pluralityof mutagenized recombinant vectors prepared by the method of any one ofclaims 36 to
 39. 41. A library of recombinant cells comprisingrecombinant vectors, two or more of which recombinant vectors comprisean open reading frame for a different polypeptide, wherein at least onerecombinant vector comprises a promoter and a first open reading framewhich is flanked by two exchange sites, wherein the exchange sites areformed by ligation of a vector comprising the promoter which is 5′ to arecognition site for a first restriction enzyme that generates a 3′ TAoverhang which is 5′ to a recognition site for a second restrictionenzyme which generates blunt ends, which vector is digested with thefirst and second restriction enzymes, and a DNA sequence comprising thefirst open reading frame flanked by an end generated by SgtI and an endgenerated by a third restriction enzyme which has infrequent restrictionsites in cDNAs or open reading frames from at least one species andgenerates blunt ends.
 42. A library of recombinant vectors, two or moreof which recombinant vectors comprise an open reading frame for adifferent polypeptide, wherein at least one recombinant vector comprisesa promoter and a first open reading frame which is flanked by twoexchange sites, wherein the exchange sites are formed by ligation of avector comprising the promoter which is 5′ to a recognition site for afirst restriction enzyme that generates 3′ TA overhang which is 5′ to arecognition site for a second restriction enzyme which generates bluntends, which vector is digested with the first and second restrictionenzymes, and a DNA sequence comprising the first open reading frameflanked by an end generated by SgfI and an end generated by a thirdrestriction enzyme which has infrequent restriction sites in cDNAs oropen reading frames from at least one species and generates blunt ends.43. A library of recombinant cells comprising recombinant vectors, twoor more of which recombinant vectors comprise an open reading frame fora different polypeptide, wherein at least one recombinant vectorcomprises a promoter and a first open reading frame comprising a secondopen reading frame and one or more codons which are in-frame with thesecond open reading frame, wherein the second open reading frame isflanked by two exchange sites, wherein the exchange sites are formed byligation of a DNA sequence comprising the second open reading framewhich includes a PmeI recognition site and is flanked at the 5′ end by arecognition site for a first restriction enzyme that generatescomplementary single-strand DNA overhangs, which DNA is digested withPmeI and the first restriction enzyme, and a vector comprising a bluntend at the 5′ end which is 5′ to the one or more in-frame codons and thepromoter which is 5′ to an end generated by a second restriction enzymewhich generates single-strand DNA overhangs which are complementary tothe single-strand DNA overhangs generated by the first restrictionenzyme.
 44. A library of recombinant vectors, two or more of whichrecombinant vectors comprise an open reading frame for a differentpolypeptide, wherein at least one recombinant vector comprises apromoter and a first open reading frame comprising a second open readingframe and one or more codons which are in-frame with the second openreading frame, wherein the second open reading frame is flanked by twoexchange sites, wherein the exchange sites are formed by ligation of aDNA sequence comprising the second open reading frame which includes aPmeI recognition site and is flanked at the 5′ end by a recognition sitefor a first restriction enzyme that generates complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs, which DNA is digested with PmeI and thefirst restriction enzyme, and a vector comprising a blunt end at the 5′end which is 5′ to the one or more codons and the promoter which is 5′to an end generated by a second restriction enzyme which generatessingle-strand DNA overhangs which are complementary to the single-strandDNA overhangs generated by the first restriction enzyme.
 45. A libraryof recombinant cells comprising recombinant vectors, two or more ofwhich recombinant vectors comprise an open reading frame for a differentpolypeptide, wherein at least one recombinant vector comprises apromoter and an open reading frame which is flanked by two exchangesites, wherein the exchange sites are formed by ligation of a DNAsequence comprising the open reading frame which is flanked by at leasttwo restriction enzyme sites for a first restriction enzyme which is ahapaxoterministic restriction enzyme, which DNA sequence is digestedwith the first restriction enzyme to generate a first DNA fragmentflanked by a first pair of non-self complementary single-strand DNAoverhangs, and a vector comprising the promoter and non-essential DNAsequences that are flanked by two restriction enzyme sites for a secondrestriction enzyme which is a hapaxoterministic restriction enzyme,which vector is digested with the second restriction enzyme to generatea second DNA fragment which lacks non-essential DNA sequences and isflanked by a second pair of non-self complementary single-strand DNAoverhangs, wherein each of the second pair of the non-self-complementaryDNA overhangs is complementary to only one of the single-strand DNAoverhangs of the first pair of non-self complementary single-strand DNAoverhangs.
 46. A library of recombinant vectors, two or more of whichrecombinant vectors comprise an open reading frame for a differentpolypeptide, wherein at least one recombinant vector comprises apromoter and an open reading frame which is flanked by two exchangesites, wherein the exchange sites are formed by ligation of a DNAsequence comprising the open reading frame which is flanked by at leasttwo restriction enzyme sites for a first restriction enzyme which is ahapaxoterministic restriction enzyme, which DNA sequence is digestedwith the first restriction enzyme to generate a first DNA fragmentflanked by a first pair of non-self complementary single-strand DNAoverhangs, and a vector comprising the promoter and non-essential DNAsequences that are flanked by two restriction enzyme sites for a secondrestriction enzyme which is a hapaxoterministic restriction enzyme,which vector is digested with the second restriction enzyme to generatea second DNA fragment which lacks non-essential DNA sequences and isflanked by a second pair of non-self complementary single-strand DNAoverhangs, wherein each of the second pair of the non-self-complementaryDNA overhangs is complementary to only one of the single-strand DNAoverhangs of the first pair of non-self complementary single-strand DNAoverhangs.
 47. A library of recombinant cells comprising recombinantvectors, a plurality of which comprise mutagenized recombinant vectorscomprising mutagenized open reading frames of a selected open readingframe, wherein at least one mutagenized recombinant vector comprises apromoter and a mutagenized open reading frame which is flanked by twoexchange sites, wherein the exchange sites are formed by ligation of avector comprising the promoter which is 5′ to a recognition site for afirst restriction enzyme that generates a 3′ TA overhang which is 5′ toa recognition site for a second restriction enzyme which generates bluntends, which vector is digested with the first and second restrictionenzymes, and a DNA sequence comprising the mutagenized open readingframe flanked by an end generated by SgfI and an end generated by athird restriction enzyme which has infrequent restriction sites in cDNAsor open reading frames from at least one species and generates bluntends.
 48. A library of recombinant vectors, a plurality of whichrecombinant vectors comprise mutagenized recombinant vectors comprisinga mutagenized open reading frames of a selected open reading frame,wherein at least one mutagenized recombinant vector comprises a promoterand a mutagenized open reading frame which is flanked by two exchangesites, wherein the exchange sites are formed by ligation of a vectorcomprising the promoter which is 5′ to a recognition site for a firstrestriction enzyme that generates a 3′ TA overhang which is 5′ to arecognition site for a second restriction enzyme which generates bluntends, which vector is digested with the first and second restrictionenzymes, and a DNA sequence comprising the mutagenized open readingframe flanked by an end generated by SigI and an end generated by athird restriction enzyme which has infrequent restriction sites in cDNAsor open reading frames from at least one species and generates bluntends.
 49. A library of recombinant vectors, a plurality of whichrecombinant vectors comprise mutagenized recombinant vectors comprisingmutagenized open reading frames of a selected open reading frame,wherein at least one recombinant vector comprises a promoter and an openreading frame comprising a mutagenized open reading frame and one ormore codons which are in-frame with the mutagenized open reading frame,wherein the mutagenized open reading frame is flanked by two exchangesites, wherein the exchange sites are formed by ligation of a DNAsequence comprising the mutagenized open reading frame which includes aPmeI recognition site and is flanked at the 5′ end by a recognition sitefor a first restriction enzyme that generates complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs, which DNA sequence is digested with PmeIand the first restriction enzyme, and a vector comprising a blunt end atthe 5′ end which is 5′ to the one or more in-frame codons and thepromoter which is 5′ to an end generated by a second restriction enzymewhich generates single-strand DNA overhangs which are complementary tothe single-strand DNA overhangs generated by the first restrictionenzyme.
 50. A library of recombinant cells comprising recombinantvectors, a plurality of which recombinant vectors comprise mutagenizedrecombinant vectors comprising mutagenized open reading frames of aselected open reading frame, wherein at least one recombinant vectorcomprises a promoter and an open reading frame comprising a mutagenizedopen reading frame and one or more codons which are in-frame with themutagenized open reading frame, wherein the mutagenized open readingframe is flanked by two exchange sites, wherein the exchange sites areformed by ligation of a DNA sequence comprising the mutagenized openreading frame which includes a PmeI recognition site and is flanked atthe 5′ end by a recognition site for a first restriction enzyme thatgenerates complementary single-strand DNA overhangs, which DNA sequenceis digested with PmeI and the first restriction enzyme, and a vectorcomprising a blunt end at the 5′ end which is 5′ to the one or morein-frame codons and the promoter which is 5′ to an end generated by asecond restriction enzyme which generates single-strand DNA overhangswhich are complementary to the single-strand DNA overhangs generated bythe first restriction enzyme.
 51. A library of recombinant cellscomprising recombinant vectors, a plurality of which recombinant vectorscomprise mutagenized recombinant vectors comprising open reading framesof a selected open reading frame, wherein at least one recombinantvector comprises a promoter operably linked to the mutagenized openreading frame which is flanked by two exchange sites, wherein theexchange sites are formed by ligation of a DNA sequence comprising themutagenized open reading frame which is flanked by at least tworestriction enzyme sites for a first restriction enzyme which is ahapaxoterministic restriction enzyme, which DNA sequence is digestedwith the first restriction enzyme to generate a first DNA fragmentflanked by a first pair of non-self complementary single-strand DNAoverhangs, and a vector comprising the promoter and non-essential DNAsequences that are flanked by two restriction enzyme sites for a secondrestriction enzyme which is a hapaxoterministic restriction enzyme,which vector is digested with the second restriction enzyme to generatea second DNA fragment which lacks non-essential DNA sequences and isflanked by a second pair of non-self complementary single-strand DNAoverhangs, wherein each of the second pair of the non-self-complementaryDNA overhangs is complementary to only one of the single-strand DNAoverhangs of the first pair of non-self complementary single-strand DNAoverhangs.
 52. A library of recombinant vectors, a plurality of whichrecombinant vectors comprise mutagenized recombinant vectors comprisingmutagenized open reading frames of a selected open reading frame,wherein at least one recombinant vector comprises a promoter and themutagenized open reading frame which is flanked by two exchange sites,wherein the exchange sites are formed by ligation of a DNA sequencecomprising the mutagenized open reading frame which is flanked by atleast two restriction enzyme sites for a first restriction enzyme whichis a hapaxoterministic restriction enzyme, which DNA sequence isdigested with the first restriction enzyme to generate a first DNAfragment flanked by a first pair of non-self complementary single-strandDNA overhangs, and a vector comprising the promoter and non-essentialDNA sequences that are flanked by two restriction enzyme sites for asecond restriction enzyme which is a hapaxoterministic restrictionenzyme, which vector is digested with the second restriction enzyme togenerate a second DNA fragment which lacks non-essential DNA sequencesand is flanked by a second pair of non-self complementary single-strandDNA overhangs, wherein each of the second pair of thenon-self-complementary DNA overhangs is complementary to only one of thesingle-strand DNA overhangs of the first pair of non-self complementarysingle-strand DNA overhangs.
 53. A method to introduce at least tworecognition sites for at least two different restriction enzymes to theends of an open reading frame, comprising: a) providing one or morenucleic acid sequences each comprising an open reading frame; and b)amplifying each nucleic acid sequence with at least a pair ofoligonucleotides to yield amplified nucleic acid comprising sequences inthe pair of oligonucleotides, wherein the pair of oligonucleotides hassequences which anneal to sequences in the one or more open readingframes, wherein the sequences in the amplified nucleic acidcorresponding to sequences in one of the pair of oligonucleotidescomprise a restriction enzyme site for SglI which is 5′ to the sequenceswhich anneal to the open reading frame, wherein the sequences in theamplified nucleic acid corresponding to sequences in the other of thepair comprises a restriction enzyme site for a first restriction enzymewhich has infrequent restriction sites in cDNAs or open reading framesfrom at least one species and generates blunt ends, which firstrestriction enzyme site is 3′ to the sequences which anneal to the openreading frame, and wherein the sequences in the amplified nucleic acidcorresponding to sequences in the oligonucleotides are capable of beingdigested with SgfI and the first restriction enzyme.
 54. The method ofclaim 53 further comprising adding an adenine to the 3′ ends of theamplified nucleic acid to yield a modified amplified nucleic acidfragment.
 55. The method of claim 54 further comprising ligating themodified amplified nucleic acid fragment to a DNA fragment having a 5′ Toverhang to yield a recombinant vector.
 56. The method of claim 53wherein the pair of oligonucleotides further comprise a topoisomerase Ibinding site at the 5′ end of the oligonucleotide.
 57. The method ofclaim 56 further comprising ligating the amplified nucleic acid fragmentto a DNA fragment having blunt ends in the presence of topoisomerase I,to yield a recombinant vector.
 58. The method of claim 53 furthercomprising digesting the amplified nucleic acid with SgfI and the firstrestriction enzyme and ligating the digested amplified nucleic acid to aDNA fragment having a blunt end and an end which is capable of ligationto an end generated by SW, to yield a recombinant vector.
 59. The methodof claim 58 wherein the amplified nucleic acid is purified prior todigestion.
 60. The method of claim 58 wherein the amplified nucleic acidis purified after digestion and prior to ligation.
 61. The method ofclaim 53 wherein the nucleic acid sequence is cDNA.
 62. The method ofclaim 53 wherein the nucleic acid sequence is RNA.
 63. The method ofclaim 53 wherein the one oligonucleotide of the pair which comprises theSgfl site includes an ATG 3′ to the SgfI site which is in-frame with theopen reading frame.
 64. The method of claim 53 wherein two or moredifferent nucleic acid sequences are amplified.
 65. The method of claim55, 57 or 58 further comprising transforming cells with the recombinantvector to yield recombinant cells.
 66. Recombinant cells prepared by themethod of claim
 65. 67. The library of any one of claims 41 to 42 and 47to 48 wherein the at least one recombinant vector comprises a furtheropen reading frame flanked by two exchange sites, wherein the exchangesites are formed by ligation of the recombinant vector which comprises arecognition site for a fourth and a fifth restriction enzyme site 3′ tothe recognition site for the restriction enzyme which generate bluntends, wherein the fourth restriction enzyme generates a 3′ TA overhangand is different than the first restriction enzyme, and wherein thefifth restriction enzyme generates blunt ends, which vector is digestedwith the fourth and fifth restriction enzymes, and a DNA sequencecomprising the flurther open reading frame flanked by an end generatedby SgfI and a sixth restriction enzyme which has infrequent restrictionsites in cDNAs or open reading frames from at least one species andgenerates blunt ends.